i 

© G^ \s^ ! 

p BROWN AND GENGEMBRE'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ELEMENTS 

OF 

ENGLISH GEAMMAR, 

ON 



COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING AND SYNTAX, 

AND 

AN APPLICATION OF SHORT-HAND, OR SYMBOLS, 
TO GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS. 

BY 

P. W. GENGEMBRE, 

PROFESSOR OF TOEEIGN LANGUAGES IN THE GIRAKD COLLEGB, 
AND 

J. H. BROWN, A.M., 

PRINCIPAL OP THE ZANE STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, AND LATE PRESIDENT OF THE 

ASSOCIATION OF THE PRINCIPALS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF PHILADELPHU, 

AND OF THE PENNSTLVANIA STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
HAYES & ZELL, PUBLISHERS, 

193 MARKET STREET. 
1855. 






^ 

^ 



LI BRARY OF CO N GRE SS. 

[SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.] 

TEUU 



■=^^# .G4 



! UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.! 



X, 



.r'^' 



BROWN AND GENGEMBRE'S ENGLISH GRAfflAR. 

ELEMENTS 



OP 

ENGLISH GRAMMAK, 

ON 

^ |r0p^snb^ Spttm; 

WITH 

COPIOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING AND SYNTAX, 

AND 

AN APPLICATION OF SHOKT-HAND, OR SYMBOLS, 
TO GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS. 

. -J^ BY 

p; w/gengembre, 

PROFESSOR OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE GIRAED COLLEGE, 
AND 

J. H. BROWN, A.M., 

PRINCIPAL OF THE ZANE STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, AND LATE PRESIDENT OP THE 

ASSOCIATION OP THE PRINCIPALS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF PHILADELPHIA, 

AND OF THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCLiTION. 



'z^d^vA 



PHILADELPHIA: 
HAYES & ZELL, PUBLISHERS, 

193 MARKET STREET. 
?1865. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by 

HAYES & ZELL, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for 
the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 

STEREOTYPED BY J. FAOAN. 



PREFACE. 



Hundreds of grammars have been written, and yet 
the demand for more efficient means of acquiring a prac- 
tical knowledge of our language is still as urgent as ever. 
This fact has induced the authors to present this work to 
the public, in the hope that the peculiarities enumerated 
below will tend to alleviate the labor of teachers and 
students. 

1st. It has been the aim of the authors to simplify the 
study of grammar, by stating but few facts in each lesson — 
illustrating them fully with examples — impressing them 
on the mind of the learner through the means of copious 
exercises, and constantly reviewing what has been learned 
in previous lessons.* 

* For example : the chapter on the noun is divided into five 
lessons: the first treats of proper and common nouns without 
reference to gender, person, number or case. (See 33-41.) The 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE. 

2d. Care has been taken not to fill the pages of this 
work with criticisms on other grammars, with the contra- 
dictory opinions of various writers on disputed points, 
and with notes on subjects of small importance. The 
space thus gained has been devoted to copious examples, 
models of verbs, models of parsing, &c. ; * in fact, to the 
explanation and full illustration of those points in which 
violations of grammatical rules are of most frequent oc- 
currence. 

3d, Grammatical innovations have been carefully 
avoided, no new terms have been introduced, and no 
changes have been made in the classification of words, &c. 

4th. The book is written in the form of question and 
answer, which ofiers the advantages of a colloquial style, 
well adapted to the understanding of the young, and of 
great convenience to the teacher. The answers are so 
worded as to make complete sense without the assistance 

second treats of gender. (See 43-57.) The third treats of person. 
(See 58-63.) The fourth treats of number. (See 64^83.) And 
the fifth treats of case, which completes the parsing of the noun. 
(See 84-100.) Copious examples and exercises are given under 
every one of the lessons mentioned above, and a complete review 
is made in each exercise of all the preceding lessons, so that the 
difficulties increase in exact proportion to the knowledge of the 
learner. 

* This work contains models of verbs in all conjugations and 
forms, and models of parsing for every part of speech in all the 
circumstances in which it may be used. 



PREFACE. V 

of the questions ; so that the work can be read and used 
without the questions by those who may prefer it. 

5th. The parsing is written in short-hand,* which so 
diminishes the labor that students can write their exer- 
cises almost as fast as they could speak them. The num- 
ber of the characters used to denote the parts of speech, 
&c., is so limited, and these characters are so gradually 
introduced, that students learn them through practice, 
without any special study of them being required. (See 
24-30, 37-39, &c.) 

The advantages of this mode of parsing are numerous 
and important : Over parsing, written in the usual man- 
ner, it has the advantage of saving nine-tenths of the 
labor, both to the pupil in writing the exercises, and to 
the teacher in examining them; thus every word in a 
long sentence can be parsed and corrected in less time 
than is usually required to parse a single word, and the 
mind become familiarized with etymology and syntax, 
by extensive practice and constant review. Over oral 
parsing, it has the advantage of securing the close atten- 
tion of every member of the class, and of enabling the 
teacher to assure himself, by glancing over the exercises, 
that each student has performed the work carefully and 

* Full models of parsing, written in the usual manner, have 
been given throughout this work, so that it can be used with or 
without the short-hand, at the option of the teacher. (See 31, &c.) 
1* 



VI PREFACE. 

understandingly. It possesses also the advantage which 
written exercises always have over those which are merely 
oral, namely, to impress the lesson more deeply on the 
mind of the learner. 

The characters employed in parsing occupy but little 
space, and can be used on the black board with great 
advantage and convenience. 



DIRECTIONS 



FOB THE 



SHORT-HAND PARSING 



1. The rules of Syntax (347) should be thoroughly 
committed to memory, and reference should be made to 
them by placing the number of the rule under the part 
of speech to which it belongs. - (See 29, 30, 98, &c.) 

2. The Table of Symbols, which is given at the end of 
this work, is intended for reference, but need not be 
studied. The student will learn these characters without 
effort, as they gradually come into use. 

3. Space should be left between the words, so that the 
symbols may not come too close to one another. 

4. The hair-lines which indicate the relations of words 

should be light, yet distinct. The symbols should be 

traced with the utmost care, and placed precisely over 

the words to which they belong. Strict attention to this 

direction will enable the teacher to examine the exercise 

at a glance. 

(yii) 



CONTENTS 



Paragrapha. 

Detinition and Division 1,2 

Etymology. 3 

Classes of words or parts of speech 4 

General view of the nine parts of speech 5-13 

Article 14-32 

Noun 33-42 

" gender 43-57 

" person 58-64 

" number 65-83 

" case .- 84-100 

Adjective 101-118 

numeral 119-124 

Pronoun 125-126 

" personal, compound personal, &c 127-137 

" relative, compound relative, &c 138-152 

" interrogative 153-161 

" adjective 162-171 

Verb 172 

" moods 182-193 

" tenses 7 194-205 

" person and number 206-212 

" classes 213-225 

" voice 226-233 

" auxiliary 234-236 

(ix) 



X CONTENTS. 

Paragraphs. 

Conjugation of regular verbs in the active voice (to love) 237-249 

" of the verb to he 250-258 

" of irregular verbs in the active voice (to see) 259-266 

" of verbs in the passive voice (to see) 267-273 

" of verbs in the progressive form (to see) . . . 274^282 

" of the verb to vrrite in the passive voice . . . 283-290 

List of irregular verbs 291 

Negative form of verbs 292 

Interrogative form of verbs 293 

Neg. and inter, form of verbs 294 

Model of verbs in the affirmative, negative, interrogative 

and negative, and interrogative form (active voice) . 295-300 

Model of verbs in the affirmative, &c. (passive voice) . . . 301-306 

Impersonal verbs 307 

Defective verbs a 308 

Participles 173-180 

Adverbs , 309-316 

Prepositions 317-322 

Conjunctions 323-332 

Interjections 333-338 

Syntax. 340 

Sentences simple and compound, phrases, &c 341-344 

Agreement and government 345-346 

Rules of Syntax 347 

Rule I. Articles 348-365 

Rule II. Adjectives 366-374 

Rule III. Pronouns 375-376 

*' " personal, &c 377-385 

relative, &c 386-396 

Rule IV. Nominatives 397-405 

Rule V. Possessive case 406-410 

Rule VI. Apposition 411-418 

Rule VII. Verbs 419-428 

Rule VIII. Participles 429-430 

Rule IX. Moods 431-438 

Rule X. Adverbs 439-444 

Rule XI. Objectives (governed by verbs) 445-451 



CONTENTS. XI 

Paragraphs. 

Rule XII. Objectives (governed by prepositions) 452-456 

Rule XIII. Prepositions 457-461 

Rule XIV. Conjunctions 462-468 

Rule XV. Interjections 469-470 

Common Errors. 

Article 471-472 

Nouns 473-474 

Adjectives 475-480 

Pronouns 481-487 

Verbs 488-498 

Improper abbreviations , 499-500 

Vulgarisms, &c 501-531 

Tautology 532-533 

Ambiguity 534-538 

Miscellaneous exercises 539-555 

Orthography. 556 

Letters, vov^els, consonants, &c 557-561 

Vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs, &c 562-566 

Sounds of the vowels 567-569 

Consonants, division, &c 570-574 

Sounds of the consonants 575-595 

Syllables 596-597 

Derivation of words 598-600 

Prefixes and suffixes, &c ; . . . . 601-609 

Spelling, rules, &c 610-625 

Punctuation. 626 

Points used, &c 627 

Comma 628-638 

Semicolon 639-642 

Colon 643-646 

Period ;...... 647-648 

Dash 649 

Note of interrogation 650-651 

** '* exclamation 652 

Various characters used in composition 654-669 

Capitals, &c 672 



XU CONTENTS. 

Paragraphs. 

Prosody. ^ 678 

Pronunciation 674-678 

Figures of speech 679 

«' of etymology 680-690 

" of syntax 691-697 

" of rhetoric . . .-. 698-715 

Versification 716-721 

Iambic verse 722-723 

Trochaic " /. 724-726 

Anapestic " 727-728 

Dactylic " 729 

Couplet, triplet, and stanza 730-732 

Scanning 733 



Abbreviations 735 

Words used as difi'erent parts of speech 736-748 

Directions to proof-readers 749-750 

Symbols or characters used for parsing in short-hand . . . 751-753 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



What is Grammar? 

1. Grammar is the art of speaking and writing cor- 
rectly. 

How is Grammar divided ? 

2. Grammar is divided into four parts : Orthography^^ 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, 

ETYMOLOGY. 

What is Etymology? 

3. Etymology is that part of Grammar which treats 
of words, and of their classifications and variations. 

Into how many classes are words divided ? 

4. Words are divided into nine classes: the Article, 
N^oun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, 
Conjunction, and Interjection, 

GENERAL VIEW OF THE NINE CLASSES OF WORDS, OR 
PARTS OF SPEECH. 

5. An Article is a word placed before a noun to limit 
its meaning ; as, The king will be here, 

* Orthography is treated of at the end of this work. 
2 (13) 



14 ARTICLES. 

6. A Noun is a word used to represent persons, places, 
or things ; as, Charles^ man, London, table. 

7. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or deter- 
mine nouns; as, An old man; two ho7/s; a black cat. 

8. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
prevent its too frequent repetition ; thus, instead of say- 
ing, John will see John's mother, we would use a pronoun, 
and say, John will see his mother, 

9. A Verb is a word used to express action or being ; 
as, I am, I speak, I love. 

10. An Adverb is a word used to qualify or determine 
verbs, particles, adjectives, or other adverbs; as, Me 
writes admirably ; A well trained horse ; She is very 
pretty and very well behaved. 

11. A Preposition is a word placed before nouns or 
pronouns, to show their relation to some other words ; as, 
The table is before the window. 

12. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences ; as, Mari/ and John sung a duet, but it was 
not much admired. 

13. An Interjection is a word used to express sudden 
emotions of the mind ; as. Oh ! what will become of me ? 



• articles. 

How many Articles are there, and what are they? 

14. There are in the English language but two Articles ; 
the Definite, which is the, and the Indefinite, which is a 
or an. 



ARTICLES. 15 

What is a Definite- Article ? 

15. A Definite Article is a word placed before nouns, 
to show that they are used in a definite sense ; as, The 
hooh is on the table. 

What does the word the indicate? 

16. The word the, in the above example,indicates that a 
particular book and table are referred to. 

Does not the word the point out or determine book and table ? 

17. The word the does not point out or determine book 
or table ; for if it did, it would be an adjective. 

What does the indicate ? 

18. The word the merely indicates that book and table 
are used in a determinate sense ; and, if the hearer has 
no previous idea of what book and table are referred to, 
the sense is not sufficiently definite. 

In what way should the sen^p be made more definite ? 

19. The sense should be made more definite, by using, 
instead of the, an adjective pointing out; as, This book, 
THAT table; or retaining the article, and adding to the 
noun an adjective describing ; as. The small booJc, the red 
book, the ROUND table; or an adjective or a preposition 
determining position; as, The table near the window, the 
table BEHIND the door. 

Is the definite article a variable word ? 

20. The definite article is not a variable word, but is 
used before both numbers and all genders ; as. The man, 
the men; the wowMn, the women; the table, the tables. 

What is an Indefinite Article ? 

21. An Indefinite Article is a word placed before nouns 



16 ARTICLES. 

to show that an indefinite member of a kind or class is 
referred to; as, Take A hook from A tahle in my room. 

What does the word a indicate ? 

22. The word «, in the above example, indicates that 
any book is to be taken from any table in my room. 

Is the indefinite article a variable word ? 

23. The indefinite article is not a variable word, yet 
for the sake of euphony, a becomes an before a vowel or 
silent h; as, A man^ A woman; AN ape, an hour. 

What is Parsing? 

24. Parsing consists in stating the grammatical pro- 
perties and relations of words, and the rules of syntax 
which apply to them. Parsing can be done orally or 
can be written, either in words or symbols. 

By what symbol is the definite article represented ? 

25. The definite article is represented by a small per- 
pendicular line ; thus | 

By what symbol is the indefinite article represented ? 

26. The indefinite article is represented by the same 
symbol as the definite, with the letters in; thus |'" 

In what way are these symbols used ? 

27. These symbols are placed above articles to point 
them out. 

What is the object of thus pomting out the articles ? 

28. The object of thus pointing out the articles is 
merely to show that the student knows how to distinguish 
them from other words. 

How is reference made to the rules of Syntax ? 

29. Reference is made to the rules of syntax by 
placing the number of the rule under the word. 



NOUNS. IT 
Parse the Articles, thus : 

30. Give me a book which is on the table. The son of a king 

1 1 11^ 



IS a prince. 

Or, thus : 

31. A book. "A" is an indefinite article, and belongs to the 
noun " book," which it limits. Kiile 1. 

The table. " The" is a definite article, and belongs to the noun 
"table," which it announces as limited. Rule 1. 



32. EXERCISE. 

1. Tell the boys to go to the playground, and the girls to remain 
ill the schoolroom. —2. Go into the house and bring me an um- 
brella, which is in the hall.— 3. The king, the queen, the princes, 

the princesses, and all the court, will be here to-day. 4. The 

moon turns round the earth, and the earth round the sun.— 5. John 
has been bitten by a dog. 



NOUNS. 
What is a Noun? 

33. A J^oun is a word used to represent persons, 
places, or things ; as, Charles, man, London, tables. 

Into how many classes are Nouns divided ? 

34. Nouns are divided into two classes : proper nouns 
and common nouns. 

2* 



18 NOUNS. 

What is a Proper Noun ? 

35. A proper noun is a name given to a special indivi- 
dual, object, or place, to distinguish it from other indivi- 
duals, objects, or places, of the same kind or class; as, 
Charles, Louis, London, Paris, 

What is a Common Noun? 

36. A common noun is the name common to all indivi- 
duals, objects, or places, of the same kind or class; as, 
Man, hoy, city. 

By what symbol are Proper Nouns represented ? 

37. Proper nouns are represented by a horizontal line ; 
thus 

By what symbol are Common Nouns represented ? 

38. Common nouns are represented by the same symbol' 
as the proper, with the letter c under the line, on the left 
side; thus c 

Parse the nouns and articles, thus : 



89. Almost all the nations of Africa are idolatroua. 
1 



New York is a fine city. 

Or the nouns, thus : 

40. " Nations" is a common noun. "Africa" is a proper noun, 

41. EXERCISE. 
1. Francis the First and Henry the Eighth were cotemporariea 
of Charles the Fifth. — 2. Napoleon, born on the fifteenth of 



NOUNS. 19 

August, 1769, died on the fifth of May, 1821.— 3. Shakspeare lived 
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.— 4. Daniel Webster was born on 
the eighteenth of January, 1784, and died on the twenty-fourth of 
October, 1852. 

Are nouns variable words? 

42. Nouns are variable words, and admit of Gender, 
Person, Number, and Case. 



GENDER. 

What is Gender? 

43. Gender is the distinction of sex. 

How many Genders have nouns? 

44. Nouns have three genders: the masculine, the 
feminine, and the neuter. 

What does the masculine denote? 

45. The masculine gender denotes the male sex; as, 
Man, hoy, lion. 

What does the feminine denote? 

46. The feminine gender denotes the female sex ; as, 
Woman, girl, lioness. 

What does the neuter denote? 

47. The neuter gender denotes things without sex; as. 
City, house, table, • 

Are not masculine and feminine nouns sometimes considered as 
neuter ? 

48. Animals of an inferior size, whose gender is not 
known or regarded, are often considered as neuter ; thus, 
in speaking of a mouse, we say. It runs : the same rule 
applies to very young children. 

Are not neuter nouns sometimes considered as masculine or feminine ? 

49. Figuratively, it is allowable to give the masculine 



20 NOUNS. 

or feminine gender to neuter nouns ; thus, in speaking of 
the sun, we may say, He is setting; and of a ship. She 
sails well. 

Of what gender are such nouns as friend, parent, cousin, neighbor, &c. ? 

50. Such nouns as friend, parent, cousin, &c., are 
said to be of the common gender, because they may be 
applied either to males or females. 

Have all masculine nouns a corresponding feminine, and all feminine 
nouns a corresponding masculine ? 

51. Many nouns, expressing occupations or professions 
belonging exclusively to men, have no corresponding 
feminine ; as, Lawyer, carter, carpenter, kc. ; and nouns, 
expressing occupations belonging to women, have no cor- 
responding masculine; as, Seamstress, milliner, laun- 
dress, &c. 

In what way is sex distinguished ? 

52. Sex may be distinguished in three ways : jBrst, by 
using different words, as, Boy, girl; secondly, by a dif- 
ference of termination, as, Actor, actress; thirdly, by 
prefixing or affixing another word, as. Man-servant, 
maid-servant; he-hear, she-hear; landlord, landlady. 

Give the feminine of the following worps : 

1. Different Words. 
53. Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. 

Bachelor Maid. Drake Duck. 

Beau Belle. Earl Countess. 

Boar Sow. Father Mother. 

Boy Girl. Friar Nun. 

Brother Sister. Gander Goose. 

Bull Cow. Hart Doe. 

Bullock Heifer. Horse Mare. 

Cock .... ..... Hen. Husband ... Wife. 

Dog Bitch. King Queen. 



NOUNS 



21 



Masc. Fern. 

Lad Lass. 

Lord Lady. 

Master Mistress. 

Nephew Niece. 

Papa Mamma. 

Earn Ewe. 

Singer. . ....... Songstress. 



Masc. Fern, 

Sir Madam. 

Sire (a horse). . . Dam. 

Son Daughter. 

Stag Hind. 

Uncle Aunt. 

Wizard Witch. 



2. Difference of Terminations. 



Abbot Abbess. 

Actor Actress. 

Administrator.. Administratrix 
Ambassador . . . Ambassadress. 

Adulterer Adulteress. 

Arbiter Arbitress. 

Author Authoress. 

Baron Baroness. 

Bridegroom .... Bride. 

Benefactor Benefactress. 

Caterer Cateress. 

Conductor Conductress. 

Count Countess. 

Czar Czarina. 

Director Directress. 

Don Donna. 

Duke Duchess. 

Elector Electress. 

Emperor Empress. 

Enchanter Enchantress. 

Executor Executrix. 

Founder Foundress. 

Giant Giantess. 

Governor ...... Governess. 

Heir Heiress. 

Hero Heroine. 

Host Hostess. 



Hunter Huntress. 

Instructor Instructress. 

Jew . Jewess. 

Landgrave Landgravine. 

Lion Lioness. 

Marquis Marchioness. 

Mayor Mayoress. 

Monitor Monitress. 

Negro Negress. 

Patron Patroness, 

Peer Peeress. 

Poet Poetess. 

Priest Priestess. 

Prince Princess. 

Prior Prioress. 

Prophet Prophetess. 

Protector Protectress. 

Shepherd Shepherdess. 

Songster Songstress. 

Sorcerer Sorceress. 

Sultan Sultana.* 

Testator Testatrix^ 

Tiger Tigress. 

Traitor Traitress. 

Viscount Viscountess. 

Widower Widow. 



* Or Sultaness. 



22 



NOUNS 



3. Prefixing or Affixing another Word. 

Cock-sparrow . . . Hen-sparrow. Male child Female child. 

Gentleman Gentlewoman. Peacock Peahen. 

He-goat She-goat. 

What is added to the symbol representing the noun, to denote gender ? 

54. The letter m for the masculine, / for the feminine, 
and c for the common, are placed on the left of the sym- 
bol to denote gender ; thus ^^^ , ^ ^ ; 
the neuter has no appendage ; thus 

Parse the articles and nouns, thus : 



L 



bb. Almost all the nations of Africa are idolatrous. John 
1 



' c 



has been a 



sailor, 



and he is now a 



a soldier, 

1 






m 



a teacher, a merchant, 



farmer, and his sister 




IS 



-- ./7_ 

a milliner. 



Or the nouns, thus : 

58. " Nations" is a common noun, neuter gender. 
" John" is a proper noun, masculine gender. 
" Milliner" is a common noun, feminine gender. 



NOUNS. 23 



57. EXERCISE. 

1. We take lessons twice a week. — 2, Silk at two dollars a yard 
is very fine. — 3. Martin Luther was born on the tenth of Novem- 
ber, 1483, at Eisleben, in Saxony. — 4. Mass was abolished, and the 
reformed religion established in England, in the year 1548. — 5. Be- 
nevolence is the wish to do good ; beneficence is the action itself. — 
6. Never affect to have more wit or knowledge than those with 
whom you are in company. 



PERSON. 
What is meant by Person? 

58. Person is the distinction between tlie person 
speaking, the person spoken to, and the person or thing 
spoken of. 

How many persons have nouns, and what are they ? 

59. Nouns have three persons : the first, which is the 
person who is speaking ; the second, which is the person 
spoken to ; and the third, which is the person or thing 
spoken of. 

What is added to the symbol representing the noun, to denote person? 

60. To denote person the figure 1, 2 or 3 is placed 
under the symbol, on the right hand side ; thus —7 

Parse the articles and nouns, thus : 




of France, by tlie grace of 




24 NOUNS 



m '^ 

3 a 

God, confer upon thee, * John of Montfort, the 



Jfi 



a 3 

of Count, &c. 

Or the nouns, thus : 

62. " Louis" is a proper noun, masculine gender, first person. 

" John" is a proper noun, masculine gender, second person. 

" Title" is a common noun, neuter gender, third person. 

63. EXERCISE. 

1. The fate of nations, as well as that of individuals, is in the 
hands of Providence.— 2. Almost all virtues are comprised in cha- 
rity .—3. The natural effect of trade is to incline nations to peace, 
—4. I like white, pink, or blue, better than yellow.— 5. My son, 
resign thyself to the will of Providence. 

64. * Note. Christian and family names, used together, are called com- 
plex nouns by some grammarians ; the distinction, however, being useless, 
we parse them simply as proper nouns. 



NUMBER. 
What is Number? 

65. Number is a distinction between unity and plu- 
rality. 

How many numbers have nouns ? 

66. Nouns have two numbers; the singular, which 
denotes but one, and the plural, which denotes more than 
one. 



NOUNS. 25 

How IS the plural generally formed? 

67. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding 
s to the singular ; as, Book, books ; table, tables. 

How do nouns ending in s, sh, ch (soft), z and x, form the plural ? 

88. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, {soft) z, and x, form the 
plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; lash, lashes ; 
churdh, churches ; topaz, topazES ; box, boxBS. 

How do nouns ending in o form the plural ? 

69. Nouns ending in o sometimes form the plural by 
adding es; as OargoES, echoES, heroES, negroES, manifes- 
toES, potatoES, volcanoES, &c. ; and sometimes by adding 
s; as Grrottos, porticos, octavos, solos, quartos, &c. 

How do nouns ending in/or /e form the plural? 

70. Nouns ending in / or fe, form the plural by chang- 
ing / or /e into ves; as. Loaf, loaYES; half, halvES; 
irlfe, wiYES. 

Mention the exceptions to that rule.' 

71. The following nouns are exceptions, and take s for 
the plural ; Brief, chief, divarf, ffe, grief, handkerchief, 
hoof, mischief, proof, relief, roof, safe, scarf, strife, surf. 
Staff makes staves; but other nouns ending in^ follow 
the general rule, and add s. 

How do nouns ending in y form the plural ? 

72. Nouns ending in y, precededlSy a consonant, form 
the plural by changing the y into ies ; as, Lady, ladiES ; 
history, historiES ; but retain the y and add s, if the y 
be preceded by a vowel ; as. Boy, boys ; day^ days. 
Proper nouns retain the y and add s. 

73. Note. — Those nouns which, by some grammarians, are called 
complex, are simply nouns combined with, and qualified by, an adjective, 

3 



26 NOUNS. 

or some other word performing the office of an adjective; as, Commander- 
in-chief, silver spoon, spoonful, brother-in-law, &c; The plural of such ex- 
pressions is formed by adding the sign of the plural to the word qualified; 
as, Commanders-in-chief, silver spoons, spoonsful, brothers-in-law. 

74. Give the plural of the following nouns : 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Die (for coining) Dies. Louse Lioe. 

Die (for gaming) Dice. Man Men. 

Child Childten. Ox Oxen. 

Foot Feet. Tooth Teeth. 

Goose Geese. Woman Women. 

75. Give the plural of the following foreign nouns : 

Automaton .... Automata. Genius Genii, Geniuses. 

Beau Beaux. Memorandum . . Memoranda. 

Batteau Batteaux. Nebula Nebulas. 

Criterion Criteria. Phenomenon . . . Phenomena. 

Chrysalis Chrysalides. Radius Radii. 

Datum Data. Stratum Strata. 

Desideratum. . . . Desiderata. Stimulus Stimuli. 

Erratum Errata. Virtuoso. .... . . Virtuosi. 

Focus Foci. Vortex Vortices. 

Formula Formulae. 

Are all nouns used both in the singular and plural ? 

76. Some nouns are used only in the singular ; as, 
Flour, gold, milk-, idleness; and some only in the plural, 
as, Ashes, archives, oats, tongs, snuffers. 

Are there any nouns alike in both numbers ? 

11. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, Deer, 
news, sheep, hose, series, species, &c. Such nouns as 
Army, jury, crowd, kc, though singular in form, are 
sometimes plural in meaning, and are called collective 
nouns, because they represent a number of individuals 
taken collectively. 



NOUNS. _ 27 

EXEECISE. 

Spell the plural of the following nouns. 

78. Life, staff, boy, lady, cuff, goose, child, woman, die (for 
gaming), silver, mother, event, series, penny, chrysalis, vortex, 
grotto, hoof, canto, alderman, day, foot, formula, genius, beau, 
phenomenon, datum, v^isdom, criterion, mercy, folio, statesman, 
portico, mouse, ox, cow, boy, safe, surf, stay, handkerchief, 
nebula. 

Spell the singular of the following nouns. , 

79. Sheep, loaves, men, books, stories, automata, ashes, 
churches, ladies, news, crises, trees, moneys, goods, roofs, proofs, 
boxes, likenesses, dies, axes, gentlemen, legacies, cries, devotees, 
babies, scissors, teeth, horses, strata, misses, dice, cargoes, assem- 
blies, zeros, lashes, errata. 

What is added to the symbol representing the noun, to denote the sin- 
gular and plural ? 

80. An s is placed on the right of the symbol repre- 
senting the noun, to denote the singular ; thus -«,,a««M^ j 
but the plural has no appendage ; thus «— 

Parse the articles and nouns ; thus : 



m s I s ^^ ^ ^ s 

81. Charles studies the history of England. Give mo 



82. "History" is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, 
singular number. 

"Books" is a common noun, neuter gender, third person, plural 
number. 



28 NOUNS. 

83. EXERCISE, 

1. Glory, riches, and power, are the objects of the ambition of 
men ; women desire rather the enjoyments of affection, and the 
sweets of social life. — 2. Pride and interest are seldom satisfied. 
3. Patience and perseverance are as necessary as diligence and 
energy. — 4. Captain Cook was killed by savages. — 5. George 
Smith earns five dollars a week. 



CASES. 
What is meant by Case ? 

84. Oase means the relation of a noun or pronoun to 
some other word in the sentence. 

How many cases have nouns and pronouns ? 

85. Nouns and pronouns have three cases, the nomi- 
native, the possessive, and the objective. 

When is a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case ? 

86. A noun or a pronoun is in the nominative case when 
it is the person or thing of which something is affirmed ; 
thus, when I say, Qharles loves; the table is broken; 
Edward reads; William is 7'ead to; the words Charles, 
table, Edward and William, are in the nominative case, 
because each of them is the subject of an affirmation. 

When is a noun or a pronoun in the objective case ? 

87. A noun or a pronoun is in the objective case, when 
it completes or gives more extension to an idea com- 
menced by the verb or noun with which it is connected ; 
thus, when I say, I love pleasure; you read to William; 
he was hurt by Edward ; the king of France ; the words 
p>leasure, William, Edward, and France, are in the ob- 
jective case, because they complete or extend the ideas 
commenced by the words love, read, tuas hurt, and king. 



NOUNS. 29 

When is the objective case governed by a verb ? 

88. The objective case is governed by a verb when it 
completes or gives more extension to the idea commenced 
bj the verb to which it relates, without tbe assistance of 
any preposition ; as, Lewis heats John ; Charles loves 

PLEASUEE. 

When is the objective case governed by a preposition ? 

89. The objective case is governed by a preposition, 
when a preposition, either expressed or understood, is 
required to show its relation to some other word in the 
sentence ; as. You read to William; he was hurt hy Ed- 
ward ; she gives (to) ME my lesson; the king of France.* 

How can a noun or pronoun in the nominative case be recognized ? 

90. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case can be 
recognized by its answering to who f or what P placed be- 
fore the verb ; as, John heats Edivard. Who beats Ed- 
ward ? John. John is therefore nominative to the verb 
heats. The cat is hitten hy the dog. What is bitten, 
kc. ? The cat. Cat is therefore nominative to the verb 
bitten. 

Row can a noun or pronoun in the objective case be recognized ? 

91. A noun or pronoun in the objective case can be 
recognized by its answering to whom f or what f placed 
after the governing word : as John heats Edward. Beats 
whom ? Edward. Edward is therefore in the objective 
case, governed by the verb heats. The cat is hitten hy 
the dog. By what ? By the dog. Bog is therefore in 
the objective case, governed by the preposition hy. 

* " The objective case expresses the object of an action or of a rela- 
tion, and generally follows a transitive verb or a preposition; as, 'John 
a.^^sists Charles ;' ' They live in London.' " — Murray. 
3* 



80 



NOUNS. 



92. ILLUSTRATION. 



Sentences to he 
Analyzed. 


Process of Analysis. 


Nominative. 


Obkctive 

governed by 

a Verb. 


Objective go- 
verned by a 
Preposition. 






Charles. 


pleasure. 


to William, 
by Edward. 


pleasure 

Edward reads 
to WiUiam.... ' 


Charles loves what? 


(-Who reads to William? 


Edward. 


William is read 




William. 




to by Edward 
The dog bites 


. William is read to by whom ? 


dog. 


cat. 


[The don- bites what? 









When is a noun in the possessive case ? 

93. A noun is in the possessive case when it is repre- 
sented as possessing ; thus, when I say Johns hooky John 
is in the possessive case, because he possesses or owns the 
book. 

How is the possessive singular formed ? 

S4. The possessive singular is formed by adding 's to 
the nominative singular ; as. The mmi's hat, the 5o?/'s 
hat. 

How is the possessive plural formed? 

95. The possessive plural is formed by adding an apos- 
trophe (') to the nominative case, if it ends in s, and 's, 
if it does not end in s; as, Bot/s' hats, men^ hats. 

Decline the nouns woman and girl in their three cases. 

Singular. Plural. 

96. Nominative,. '. . Woman, Women. 

Possessive Woman's, Women's. 

Objective Woman, Women. 

Nominative Girl, Girls. 

Possessive Girl's, (Jirls'. 

Objective Girl, Girls. 

What is added to the symbol representing the noun to denote case ? 

97. The nominative is marked thus —, the possessive 



nou:ns. 31 

thus w, and the objective thus '^, when governed by a 
verb, and thus <t>, when governed by a preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 
Noun in the Nominative case ■-i. t-tti i 

Noun in the Possessive case .m y 

Noun in the Objective case governed by a verb "^ 

Noun in the Objective case governed by a preposition, , „,^..^, 

Parse the articles and nouns, thus : 

I . r 

"■■■•,.C 3 \c 3 \ / C 3 /^'"-'P.. ^ 

98. The vs^oraan's husband cuts wood in a forest. 

15 4 11 1 12 

Or the nouns, thus : 

99. Woman^s husband. "Woman's" is a common noun, femi- 
nine gender, third person, singular number, possessive case, and 
is governed by the noun " husband,'' which it possesses. Rule V. 

Husband cuts. " Husband" is a common noun, masculine gen- 
der, third person, singular number, nominative case, subject of the 
verb " cuts." Rule IV. 

Cuts wood. " Wood" is a common noun, neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, objective case, object of the verb "cuts." 
Rule XI. 

In forest. " Forest" is a common noun, neuter gender, third 
person, singular number, objective case, object of the preposition 
" in." Rule Xll. 

100. EXERCISE. 

1. Mary's brother was punished by the teacher. — 2. Washing- 
ton's soldiers defeated the British at Yorktown. — 3. France and 
England are united against Russia. — 4. A Turkish fleet was de- 
stroyed by the Russians, — 5. Set the dogs after the pigs. — 6. My 



32 ADJECTIVES. 

mother's cow gives good milk. — 7. The tower of London has been 
partly destroyed by fire. — 8. Never enter the schoolroom in a noisy 



ADJECTIVES. 

What is an Adjective ? 

101. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or deter- 
mine nouns; as, An old man; two hoys; a black cat. 

Are adjectives variable words ? 

102. Adjectives are susceptible of comparison. 

How many degrees of comparison are there ? 

103. There are three degrees of comparison ; the posi- 
tive, comparative, and superlative. 

When is an adjective in the positive degree ? 

104. An adjective is in the positive degree when it is 
used in its simple sense, and without any idea of aug- 
mentation or diminution ; as, John is a wise hoy. 

When is an adjective in the comparative degree ? 

105. An adjective is in the comparative degree when 
its signification is increased or lessened ; as, John is 
WISER than Charles, hut less wise than Peter. 

When is an adjective in the superlative degree ? 

106. An adjective is in the superlative degree when its 
signification is increased to the highest, or lessened to the 
lowest degree; as, John is now the least wise, hut may 
perhaps hecome the wisest of his class. 

How are the comparative and superlative degrees formed ? 

107. Monosyllables generally form the comparative, 
by adding r or er to the positive; and the superlative, by 
adding st or est to the positive ; as, 



ADJECTIVES. 33 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Young, Younger, Youngest. 

Old, Older, Olde^^;. 

Strong, Stronger, Strongest. 

How are the comparative and superlative degrees formed with words 
of more than one syllable ? 

108. Dissyllables ending m y or e are often compared 
like monosyllables ; as, happy., happiE'K, Jiappi'E^T ; ahle, 
ablEB,, abl'EST. Others form the comparative by prefix- 
ing more or less to the positive, and the superlative by 
prefixing most or least to the positive ; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Agreeable, more or less agreeable, most or least agreeable. 

Offensive, more or less offensive, most or least offensive. 

Troublesome, more or less troublesome, most or least troublesome. 

Give the comparative and superlative of the following irregidarly 
compared adjectives. 

109. Bad, Worse, Worst. 
Good, Better, Best. 

Far, Farther or further. Farthest or furthest. 

Late, Later, Latest or last. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Many, More, Most. 

Much, More, Most. 

Old, Older or elder. Oldest or eldest. 

Have adjectives no other degrees of comparison than those mentioned 
above ? 

110. The positive, comparative, and superlative de- 
grees, being the most common, are alone considered as 
degrees of comparison ; yet adjectives may be made to 
express many other shades of meaning ; as, rather white, 
whitish, nearly white, white, very white, the very least 
white, the least white, rather the least white, much less 
white, less white, white, as white, ivhiter, rather whiter, 



34 ADJECTIVES. 

much whiter^ the whitest^ rather the whitest^ much the 
whitest, very much the whitest, &c. 

Compare the following adjectives : 

■ 111. Fine, good, handsome, young, poor, outrageous, industrious, 
careless, black, longer, higher, tall, short, straitest, wide, simplest, 
most, best. 

Are adjectives ever used without a noun ? 

112. Adjectives are sometimes used without a noun, 
but in that case, the noun is always understood ; thus, 
instead of saying. Bring 7ne two books, and see that both 
boohs be as interesting as this book, or that book ; we may 
say. Bring me two books, and see that both be as inte- 
resting as THIS or THAT. 

Are nouns ever used as adjectives ? 

113. Nouns are used as adjectives when they express 
some quality of another noun, as : a STRAW bonnet, a 
SILVER spoon, some rain water. 

By what symbol are adjectives represented ? 

1 II. Adjectives are represented by a perpendicular line 
with a short horizontal line on the top, thus I 

What is added to the symbol representing the adjective to denote the 
degrees of comparison ? 

115. The positive has no appendage; the comparative 
is marked by a e, and the superlative by an s, on the left 
of the symbol, thus : 

Positive I Comparative ^j Superlative ^j 



3 \ y-^'""--^^-::,^ 



ADJECTIVES. 35 

Parse the articles, nouns, and adjectives, thus: 

I" T T ^^-^ / 

^-"^^^ 

116. William is a good *boy ; he is fbetter than Charles, 

4 12 4 6 2 4 

I K I 

/ -^^ 

but he is not the best boy in the school. 

12 4 6 1 12 

Or the adjectives, thus: 

117. Good boy. "Good" is an adjective in the positive degree, 
and belongs to the noun " boy." Kule II. 

Better boy. "Better" is an adjective in the comparative degree^ 
and belongs to the noun " boy" understood. Kule II. 

Best boy. " Best" is an adjective in the superlative degree, and 
belongs to the noun " boy." Kule II. 

118. EXEKCISE. 

1. These men are brave, but they are not the bravest in the 
army. — 2. Nero was the greatest tyrant that ever disgraced the 
name of man. — 3. "Wilkes is the latest navigator who has made 
important discoveries in the Southern Ocean. — 4. New Zealand is 
the largest Island that was discovered by Captain Cook. — 5. Miss 
S. has little eyes without expression. — 6. Severe reprimands, like 
bitter medicines, are sometimes judicious. 

* Instances of the nominative case after the verb to he are so frequent 
that it is thought advisable to parse them, and to refer the student to 
note 6, § 4] 5, under Rule VI. 

t- In parsing by symbols, words understood are placed over the line, 



I 



and connected, as : better. 



36 ADJECTIVES. 

What is a numeral adjective ? 

119. A numeral adjective is one that expresses number, 
order, or proportion ; as, tivo, second, double, half. 

How many kinds of numeral adjectives are there ? 

120. There are three kinds of numeral adjectives : the 
cardinal, which express number, as one, two, three, four, 
&c. ; the ordinal, which express order, as first, second, 
third, fourth, &c. ; and the 'proportional, which are used 
to multiply and divide, as single, double, triple, half, &c. 

By what symbol are numeral adjectives represented ? 

121. Numeral adjectives are represented by the same 
symbol as other adjectives, with the letter n, thus, I 

the ordinal 

Tn 
and the proportional has no ap- 
pendage, thus : I 

Parse the articles, nouns, and adjectives, thus : 



T>^ r i; 






122. Call three boys, and give half a dollar to the 
2 11 2 1 11 1 

or 



t; 



first that shall con;e. 
2 



PRONOUNS. 3T 

Or the adjectives, thus : 

123. Three boys. *' Three" is a numeral adjective of the cardi- 
nal kind, and belongs to the noun " boys.'^ Rule II. 

JBTaZ/* dollar. *' Half" is a numeral adjective of the proportional 
kind, and belongs to the noun " dollar." Rule II. 

First boy. " First" is a numeral adjective of the ordinal kind, 
and belongs to the noun " boy" understood. Rule II. 

124. EXERCISE. 

1. The first and second girl in the class. — 2. Three hundred and 
forty-five bushels of wheat each month. — 3. An army one hun- 
dred and tv«^enty thousand men strong. — 4. We shall have an exa- 
mination on the first Monday of each month.— 5. The silk is a 
yard and a quarter wide. — 6. The ditch is seven feet five inches 
deep. — 7. There are eight hundred and fifty children in this 
school. 

PRONOUNS. 

What is a Pronoun ? 

125. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to 
prevent its too frequent repetition ; thus, instead of say- 
ing, When Mary has money ^ Mart spends money fool- 
ishly, we use pronouns, and say, When Mary has money, 
SHE spends IT foolishly. 

Into how many classes are pronouns divided ? 

126. Pronouns are divided into four classes : the Per- 
sonaly Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
What is a personal pronoun ? 

127. A personal pronoun is one that occupies the im- 
mediate place of the noun which it represents, and which 
shows by its form of what gender, person, and number 
it is. 

4 



38 



» 


PRONOUNS. 






Decline the personal pronouns. 






128. Person. 


Gender. 


Nominative. 


Possessive. Objective. 


Ist, 


m. or f. 


I, 


my or mine, 


me. 


2d, 


m. or f. 


Thou, 


thy or thine. 


thee. 




m. 


He, 


his, 


him. 


3d, 


- f. 


She, 


her or hers. 


her. 




.n. 


It, 


its. 


it. 


1st, 


m. or f. 


We, 


our or ours, 


us. 


2d, 


m. or f. 


You, 


your or yours, 


, you. 


3d, 


m. f. or n. 


They, 


their or theirs, 


them. 



What is the difference between the pronouns, my, thy, his, her, &c., 
and mine, thine, his, hers, &c. ? 

129. The pronouns my, thi/, his, her, &c., exactly cor- 
respond to nouns in the possessive case, and the pronouns 
mine, thine, his, hers, &c., are a kind of double pronouns 
which represent both the possessor and the thing pos- 
sessed ; thus, when Edward says to William, G-ive John 
my hooh, and keep yours, '•^ my'' represents the word 
Edward's only, but "yours" represents both William s 
and hooh. 

What is a compound personal pronoun ? 

180. A compound personal pronoan is one composed 
of a personal pronoun in the possessive case and the word 
self, thus : 



Person. 


Gender. 


Singular. Plural. 


1st, 


m. or f. 


Myself, ourselves. 


2d, 


m. or f. 


Thyself, yourselves. 




rm. 


* Himself, ^ 


3d, 


^• 


Herself, l * themselves. 




in. 


^Itself, J 


When should the compound personal pronouns be used ? 


131. Compound personal 


pronouns should be used, 1st. 



* Consistency would require hisself, itsself, afid theirselves, but custom 
has determined otherwise. 



PRONOUNS. 



39 



When the action reverts upon the agent : as, He hurts 
HIMSELF, she deceives herself. 2d. To give more em- 
phasis, and mark more positively the distinction of per- 
sons : as, If you do not attend to it yourself, you will 
lose hy it. 

By what symbol are personal pronouns represented ? 

132. Personal pronouns are represented by the same 
symbol as nouns with a small line on the left side, 
thus X 

What is added to the symbol representing the pronoun, to denote 
gender, person, number, and case ? 

133. The variations of gender, person, number, and 
case, are marked with pronouns as with nouns, thus ; 

f Singular ^ ^ 

Number \ 

^Plural 

r Masculine 

Feminine f^ 

Common ^^ 

^ Neuter ^ 



Gender 




r First.., 
Person^ Second 



Third 



Case 



Nominative ^ — 

Possessive <^ ^-^ 



Objective (governed by a verb) 



Objective (governed by a preposition) . . , . . ^Cj2^ 



40 PRONOUNS. 

By what symbol are compound personal pronouns represented ? 

134. Compound personal pronouns are represented by 
the same symbol as personal pronouns, with a c under the 



symbol on the left side, thus c 



Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, and personal pronouns, thus : 

-SSr .,^..^.... 



135. If you give me my cap, 

5 11 



'z=: 







I will give you yours. Do not fatigue yourself 

so mucb. 

Or the pronouns, thus : 

136. You give. "You" is a personal pronoun, masculine gen- 
der, second person, plural number, nominative case, subject of the 
verb "give." Eule IV. 

To me. " Me" is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, first 
person, singular number, objective case, object of the preposition 
" to" understood. Kule XII. 

" Youj's" is a personal pronoun, masculine gender, second person, 
plural number, possessive case, governed by the V70rd "cap," which 
it includes. Rule V. 

Do fatigue yourself. " Yourself" is a compound personal pro- 
noun, masculine gender, second person, plural number, objective 
case, object of the verb "do fatigue." Rule XI. 

137. EXERCISE. 

1. Time is precious, do not spend it in trifles. — 2. If the child 
does not like it, do not compel her to eat it. — 3. Do not do it 
through ostentation. — 4. Will you lend me the first volume of 



PRONOUNS. 41 

Macauley's History of England? — 5. ^Ye had not promised them 
to jou. — 6. I would not send it to them. — 7. Go with him and 
with her, and do not return without them. — 8. We will see them 
before her, but after him. — 9. I work for my maintenance — thou 
livest on thy income. — 10. Our navy is more powerful than 
theirs. — 11. Your friends and mine are not of the same opinion. — 
12. Has the cow eaten all her grass? — 13. My finger is sore since 
I burned myself. — 14. "Each for himself is too generally the 
motto of mankind. — 15. She attributes it to herself. — 16. Do it 
yourself if you want it well done. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
What is a Relative Pronoim ? 

138. A relative pronoun is a word that relates to, and 
recalls tlie idea of, some preceding word or phrase, called 
antecedent, and which it connects with the clause that 
comes after. Thus, when I say. Young people who talk 
too much think too little; the word '•^ who' recalls the 
idea of the antecedent '''"young people^'' and connects it 
with the clause which comes after '''•talk too much^'' &c. 

Give the relative pronouns. 

1S9. The relative pronouns are Who, which, and that. 

Are these pronouns used indiscriminately, one for another ? 

140. Who, which, and that, should not be used indis- 
criminately one for another. Who relates to persons ; as, 
The men who speak. Which relates to animals or things ; 
as, The horse which is wounded; The plate which is 
broken. Tliat relates both to persons and things ; as, 
The man that speaks; The plates that are broken. 

Of what variations do relative pronouns admit ? 

141. Relative pronouns admit of no variation for gen- 
der, person or number ; and who only is declinable, thus : 

4* 



42 PEONOUNS. 

Nominative, Who. Possessive, Whose/- Objective, Whom. 
Give an example of the word who used in all its cases ? 

142. The lady who will sing this evening is the person 
WHOSE voice is so powerful, and whom I heard yesterday. 

What are compound relative pronouns ? 

143. Compound relative pronouns are those which in- 
clude their antecedent within themselves. 

Is the word what a compound relative pronoun ? 

144. The word what is a compound relative pronoun, 
for it signifies that which, those which, the thing or things 
which. 

Point out the relative and antecedent in the following- sentence : 
What you tell me is not credible. 

145. ''What you tell me,'' &c., signifies the thing or 
things which you tell me, &c. The thing or things is there- 
fore the antecedent of the relative •rf^(?^. 

How are other compound relative pronouns formed ? 

146. Other compound relative pronouns are formed by 
adding ever or soever to the relatives who, which, and 
what, thus : whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, 
whatever, whatsoever. 

Point out the antecedents and the relatives in the following- sentences : 
Whoever will ask for it will get it ; I shall give you whatever you ask. 

147. " Whoever will,'' kc, signifies any person who will, 
&c. ; and ''whatever you ask," kc, signifies anything 
which you ash, &c. "Any person" and "anything" are 
antecedents to the relatives who and which. 



* Whose sometimes relates to inanimate objects; as, A town whose 
fortifications had been destroyed. 



PRONOUNS, 



43 



By what symbol are relative pronouns represented ? 

148. Relative pronouns are represented by the same 
symbol as personal pronouns, with the addition of an r 
on the right of the symbol, thus <f ti. 

What is added to the symbol representing the relative pronoun, to 
denote gender, person, number, and case ? 

149. These variations are marked as with nouns and 
personal pronouns. The compound relative pronouns are 

marked with a c under the symbol, thus /T ■ n /{? . 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, and the personal and relative 
pronouns, thus : 



150. Children who are loved by their schoolfellows, 

4 3 4 5 12 



yr\ s 



will probably be loved in society. 

12 



The boy whom I saw said so. 

1 4 3 11 4 

Or the relative pronouns, thus : 

151. Children wTio are loved. "Who" is a relative pronoun, 
and agrees with its antecedent " children" in the common gender, 
third person, plural number, (Eule III.) ; and is in the nominative 
case, subject of the verb "are loved." Kule IV. 

Boy, I saw whom. "Whom" is a relative pronoun, and agrees 
with its antecedent " boy" in the masculine gender, third person, 



44 PRONOUNS. 

singular number, (Rule III.) ; and is in the objective case, object 
of the verb " savr." Rule XI. 

152. EXERCISE. 

1. The horse on vrhich I had put the sack ran away. — 2. Do 
you know the lady with whom I was talking? — 3. I like the 
society of those with whom I feel at ease. — 4. The good which we 
do is often a fund which we lay by for unforeseen circumstances. — 
5. It is not what I had relied on. — 6. It is what you ought to 
reflect on. — 7. At what is your brother so offended? — 8. The chil- 
dren to whose whims you yield will give you many sorrows. — 
9. Here is the young man whom I recommended to you. — 10. Who- 
ever dares to insult him shall repent it. — 11. Whatever you order 
I shall execute. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? 

153. An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking a 
question. 

Give the interrogative pronouns. 

154. The interrogative pronouns are who^ what^ and 
which. 

Are the pronouns used indiscriminately one for another ? 

155. Who^ what, and which, should not be used indis- 
criminately one for another. Who inquires for persons ; 
as, Who is that man ? who calls me ? * What inquires 
for things ; as, What makes you laugh f Wliich is used 
both for persons and things, and implies choice ; as, 
Which of these ladies do you like best ? v^hich of these 
hooks will you read ? 

* When what stands before a noun, it is really an adjective, and in- 
quires both for persons and things ; as What man is thai ? What book 
are you reading ? 



" PRONOUNS. 45 

Of what variations do interrogative pronouns admit? 

156. Interrogative pronouns admit of no variation for 
number, gender, or person ; and who only is declinable, 
thus: 

I Nominative, WJiof Possessive, Whose? Objective, Whom? 

\ Give an example of the interrogative who in all its cases. 

157. Whose Mood is that f Who has been murdered^ 
and by whom f 

By what symbol are interrogative pronouns represented ? 

158. Interrogative pronouns are represented by the 
same symbol as personal pronouns, -with a note of inter- 
rogation, thus ^ "? 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, and personal, relative, and inter- 
rogative pronouns, thus : 



3 ' \ 

159. Who is that in 
3 4 



?. / . s 

l^'K ^- 



T 




the boy whose mother came this 

14 6 3 5 2 

Or the interrogative pronouns, thus : 

160. Boy who is. "Who" is an interrogative pronoun, and 
agrees with "boy" in the masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, (Rule III.); and is in the nominative case, subject to the, 
verb " is." Rule IV. 

161. EXERCISE. 

1. Who has thread to give me? — 2, With whom did you dance 
at Mrs. B.^s? — 3. Which of my two brothers do you like best? — 



46 PRONOUNS. 

4. Whom have they chosen for their captain ? — 5. With which of 
these ladies did you speak? — 6. Whose gloves are these? — 7. Of 
what does he always complain? — 8. Whose house is that on the 
left hand? — 9. Who is that speaking to him? — 10. What troubles 
you, and vrhat can I do for you? — 11. Whose penknife is this? — 
12. In vrhat have I neglected my duty? 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

162. Most grammarians define an adjective pronoun, as a word used 
sometimes as an adjective and sometimes as a pronoun, and which par- 
takes of the nature of both. 

They divide adjective pronouns into four classes, namely : the Pos- 
sessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

The above definition and classification, though almost universally 
adopted, seem to be both erroneous and useless. 

Erroneous, because very few of the words thus classified really par- 
take of the nature both of adjectives and pronouns ; 

Useless, because such a classification can be of no available use to the 
writer or speaker. 

The so-called possessive adjective pronouns are simply personal pro- 
nouns in the possessive case ; for if we admit of such a thing as nouns 
in the possessive case, we must necessarily admit of corresponding pro- 
nouns in the same case. (See 128, 129.) 

The distributive and indefinite adjective pronouns, with the exception 
of the words owe, none, other, and another, are evidently adjectives, and 
partake in no way of the nature of pronouns ; for they cannot in a 
single instance be made to stand for nouns; thus, in this sentence, 
Neither suits me, but I need two, and shall take both, the words " nei- 
ther" and "both" do not stand for nouns, any more than the word 
" two," and the ellipsis can be supplied after the one as well as after the 
other. If, therefore, such words as neither and both be considered as 
adjective pronouns, there is no possible reason why all such adjectives as 
admit of the ellipsis of the noun which they qualify, should not belong to 
the same category. 

As, however, it is our intention to propose, but not to impose, innova- 
tions, we shall give, besides our own classification, (from 163 to 166,) the 
one generally adopted, (from 163'' to 165^,) leaving it to the discretion of 
teachers to use the one or the other. 



PRONOUNS. 47 

What is an Adjective Pronoun ? 

163. An adjective pronoun is one which qualifies or 
determines the noun for which it stands. 

Give the adjective pronouns. 

164. The adjective pronouns are the demonstratives 
this J that, these, and those; and the indefinites, one, none,^ 
other, and another. 

Decline such of the adjective pronouns as are declinable. 

165. The adjective pronouns, one, other, and another, 
are declinable, and decline thus : 

I" Nominative .... One, other, another. 

Singular. < Possessive One's, other's, another's. 

(. Objective One, other, another. 

r Nominative Ones, others. 

Plural. . . \ Possessive Ones', others'. 

I Obj ective Ones, others. 

The demonstrative adjective pronouns, and the word 
none, are indeclinable. 

Are the words Mis, that, these, those, one, none, other, and another, alw^ays 
adjective pronouns ? 

168. When the words this, that, these, those, &c., are 
joined to a substantive, or when a substantive may be 
inserted after them without altering the sense, these words 
are indeclinable, and are mere adjectives ; as, THIS man, 
ANOTHER hoy, ONE hooTc, &c. 

What is an adjective pronoun ? 

168'. An adjective pronoun is one used sometimes as 
an adjective, sometimes as a pronoun, and which partakes 
of the nature of both. / 



48 PRONOUNS. 

How are adjective pronouns divided, and what are they? 

164^ Adjective pronouns are divided into three- 
classes : * the Distributives, the Demonstratives, and the 
Indefinites. The distributives are, each, every, either, 
and neither. The demonstratives are, this, that, these, 
and those. The indefinites are, any, all, both, such, whole^ 
some, one, none, other, and another. 

Decline such of the adjective pronouns as are declinable. 

165'. One, other, and another, are declinable thus : 

{Nominative One, other, another. 

Possessive One's, other's, another's. 

Objective One, other, another. 

r Nominative.... Ones, others. 

Plural. . , < Possessive Ones', others'. 

(objective Ones, others. 

By what symbol are adjective pronouns represented ? 

167. Adjective pronouns are represented by a combi- 
nation of the symbols of the adjective and of the pronoun ; 

How are gender, person, number, and case represented ? 

168. When needed they are marked as with other pro- 
nouns. 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, thus : 

'r< T ■■"■N ''*^*^^*»^ -. 

169. Give me that book, and take that 

11 2 11 11 



* The possessives have been given as personal pronouns in the pos- 
sessive case. (See 128, 129.) 



VERBS. 



49 




brother. 

12 






One does not like to have such a 
4 2 1 



jn r\ s 



person in one s 
11 5 



house. 

12 



Or the adjective pronouns, thus : 

170. Take that. " That" is an adjective pronoun, neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, objective case, object of the verb 
" take.'' Rule XI. 

One does like. " One" is an adjective pronoun, masculine gen- 
der, third person, singular number, nominative case, subject of the 
verb " does like." Rule IV. 



171. EXERCISE. 

1. In cold countries, black or red animals turn whitish in 
winter. — 2. The Spanish infantry was formerly the best in 
Europe. — 3. She is guilty of rude, vulgar, and deceitful behavior. 
— 4. The idler prepares for himself painful and unavailing re- 
grets. — 5. This is the twenty-first page of the second book. — 6. In 
the French army, a battalion is composed of six companies, each 
of one hundred and twenty-one men. — 7. Give me that copy-book. 
— 8. That cap is too large for that child. *" 



VERBS. 

What is a Verb? 

172. A verb is a word used to express action or being; 
as, I am, I speak, I love. 



50 VERBS. 

PARTICIPLES.* 
What is a participle ? 

173. A participle is a certain form of the verb, which 
partakes of the nature of the verb and of the adjective. 
It partakes of the former, inasmuch as it denotes time, 
and expresses action or being ; and of the latter, inas- 
much as it belongs to nouns, and qualifies them. 

How many participles have verbs ? 

174. Verbs have three participles, the present, the per- 
fect, and the compound perfect ; as. Loving^ loved, Jiavmg 
loved, in the active voice; and being loved, loved, having 
been loved, in the passive voice. 



What does the present participle express, and how is it formed 



175. The present participle expresses a continuance of 
action or being; as. Writing, loving, being; being loved, 
being seen. The present participle is formed by adding 
ing to the infinitive mood; as. Love, loving; touch, 
touching ; be, being, &c. 

What does the perfect participle express, and how is it formed ? 

176. The perfect participle expresses either completion 
of action, or state of being ; as. The letter is written ; 
John is LOVED. The perfect participle is formed by 
adding d or ed to the present tense of regular verbs ; as. 



* A knowledge of the participles being necessary to a clear com- 
prehension of some of the modifications of the verb, they are here 
introduced. 



VERBS. 61 

Love J loved; touch, touched, &c. (For the perfect parti- 
ciples of irregular verbs, see 291.) 

What does the compound perfect participle express, and how is it 
formed ? 

177. The compound perfect participle expresses a pre- 
vious completion of action or being; as, John, having 
RECITED his lesson, went to play ; The men, having been 
PAID, returned to their work. The compound perfect 
participle is formed by prefixing having to the perfect for 
the active voice, and having been for the passive voice ; 
as. Having loved, having written; having been loved, 
having been written, &c. 

What remarks are made with regard to words of a participial form, 
and which are used as adjectives ? 

178. Words of a participial form are sometimes placed 
before nouns, to denote quality, and should be considered 
and parsed as adjectives. The participle is distinguished 
from the adjective by the former expressing action or 
being, and an idea of time, and the latter denoting only 
quality ; thus, in I saw a ship sailing northward, the 
word sailing is evidently a participle, because it denotes 
both action and time ; but, in He came from England in 
a sailing vessel, the word sailing merely describes vessel, 
and is therefore an adjective. Adjectives are generally 
placed before the nouns to which they belong, and parti- 
ciples after them. 

What remarks are made with regard to words of a participial form, 
and which are used as nouns ? 

179. Words of a participial form, ending in ing, are 



50* VERBS 

often used as nouns, and should be parsed as such ; as, 
Excellent writing ; A good understanding. 

Nouns ending in ing can be distinguished from partici- 
ples, bj the former taking articles, adjectives, and nouns 
or pronouns in the possessive case before them, which 
^the latter never do. 

Note. — When the participle is joined to an auxiliary verb, to form a 
compound tense, it is parsed jointly with the auxiliary, as a tense of the 
verb ; as, She has spoken. 

By what symbol are participles represented ? 

176! Participles are represented thus I ■ 

What is added to the symbol representing the participle, to denote its 
modifications ? 

177! The present has no appendage; thus , I ■ 

The perfect has a mark on the first branch ; thus I 
The compound perfect has a mark on the second 
branch; thus i»l«i{ 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and participles, thus : 



t^:+ X 



In ns 

,■■3" 



178! A book written by many individuals is generally 

1 8 2 12 



VERBS. 51^ 



T# T 



/ s' 



. />4, 


-V;, 


. s" 


■-... 


7 






3- 


r 


3 



correct. Our dancing master sprained his antle 

2 5 2' 4 5 11 



^ 



while dancing. 

8 
Or the participles, thus : 

179! Book written. "Written" is a perfect participle, and he- 
longs to the noun "book." Rule VIII. 

Master dancing. "Dancing" is a present participle, and he- 
longs to the noun " master." Rule VIII. 

180. EXERCISE. 

1. At the battle of Perpignan Louis XIII. seemed to rise above 
the natural weakness of his character ; in the hottest of the en- 
gagement he was seen observing eagerly the charges of his cavalry 
against that of the Spaniards, inhaling in long draughts the odor 
of the gunpowder, listening rapturously to the noise of the cannon, 
until at last, (with all the valor of his race sparkling in his eyes,) 
raising his sword toward the splendid sun, he exclaimed : " Follow 
me, brave friends ! it is here that I am king of France !" — 2. She 
is a very charming woman. — 3. Painting is an art in which the 
Italians excel. — 4. The boy named Henry desires to see you. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE VEEB. 
Are verbs variable words? 

181. Verbs are modified by mood^ tense^ number j per- 
son, and voice. 
5* 



52 VERBS. 

MOODS. 
What are Moods ? 

182. Moods are modifications of the verb used to ex- 
press the various ways in which an affirmation can be 

made. 

How many moods have verbs ? 

I8S. Verbs have five moods : the Infinitive^ Indicative, 
Subjunctive, Potential, and Imperative. 

What is the Infinitive mood ? 

181. The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
affirms something in a vague, unlimited manner, and with- 
out any consideration of number, person, or time; as, To 
love; to speak. 

What is the Indicative mood ? 

185. The Indicative mood is that form of the verb which 
affirms something, or asks a question, in a positive and 
direct manner; as, I love; I shall speak; do Hove? 

What is the Subjunctive mood ? 

186. The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb 
which affirms something as conditional, doubtful, con- 
tingent ; as. If you speak to him he will do it. 

What is the Potential mood ? 

187. The Potential mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses power, liberty, possibility, or necessity ; as, 
I must speak; I may speak; I can write. 

I What is the Imperative mood ? 

i 188. The Imperative mood is that form of the verb 
which commands, exhorts, entreats, permits; as. Stand 
in that corner and study for an hour. 



VERBS. 53 

By what symbol are verbs represented ? 

189. Verbs are represented by a cross, thus... y^ 

What is added to the symbol representing- the verb, to denote mood? 

190. The Infinitive mood has no appendage, thus \f 

The Indicative has a line connecting the first with ^-^ 
the second branch, thus.... /\ 

The Subjunctive has a line connecting the second ^ j. 
with the third branch, thus ^A 

The Potential has a line connecting the third with y^ 
the fourth branch, thus J\ 

The Imperative has a line connecting the fourth with 



the first branch, thus. 



\x 



Parse the articles, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, verbs, and participles, 
thus: 



191. Speak to him if you see him ; I 

12 4 11 4 

intend to do it, but I can \not/ promise. 
9 11 4 ^ ' 

Or the verbs, thus : 

192. You speak. " Speak" is a verb in the imperative mood. 
If you see him. " See" is a verb in the subjunctive mood. 

I intend to do it. " Intend" is a verb in the indicative mood. 



54 VERBS. 

Intend to do it. " To do" is a verb in the infinitive mood, and 

is governed by the verb " intend/^ on which it depends. Kule IX. 

I can promise. " Can promise" is a verb in the potential mood. 

193. EXERCISE. 

1. Send her to me, and I shall pay it to her. — 2. He showed it 
to me since you sold it to him. — 3. If you will send it to me, I 
will lend it to her. — 4. I said it to her, and will repeat it to 
you. — 5. Bring your book, that I may mark your lesson. — 6. You 
may play for an hour, if you know all your lessons. — 7. If he 
does it again, punish him. — 8. Here is a nosegay, give it to your 
sister. 



TENSES. . 
"What are Tenses? 

194. Tenses ^ire modifications of the verb to distinguish 
time. 

How many tenses have verbs? 

195. Verbs have six tenses : 

One for the present , Present. 

( Imperfect. 
Three for the past \ Perfect. 

I Pluperfect. 

, Two for the future j First future. 

I. Second future. 

What does the Present tense express? 

196. The Present tense expresses what now is, or what 
is taking place; as, You are sick; /see him. 

What does the Imperfect tense express? ~ 

197. The Imperfect tense expresses what was, or what 
took place at some period of time fully past ; as, You 
WERE sick last week ; I saw liim yesterday. 



VERBS. 55 

What does the Perfect tense express ? 

198. The Perfect tense expresses what has been, or 
what has taken place within some period of time not com- 
pletely past ; as, You have been sick the greater part of 
this week; J have seen him this morning. 

What does the Pluperfect tense express? 

199. The Pluperfect tense expresses what had been, or 
what had taken place before some past action or occur- 
rence; as, You HAD BEEN sioh a whole week before I knew 
of it; I HAD SEEN him when you came. 

What does the First Future tense express? 

200. The first Future tense expresses what will be, or 
what will take place at some future time ; as. He will be 
sick to-morrow if he is not careful; I shall see him 
to-morrow. 

What does the Second Future tense express? 

201. The second Future tense expresses what will have 
been, or what will have taken place at or before some 
future time mentioned ; as. He will have been sick a 
whole day hefore medical aid can he obtained; I shall 
have seen him hefore this evening. 

What is added to the symbol expressing the verb, to denote tense? 

202. The Present has no appendage, thus y[ 

The Imperfect has a mark on the first branch, ^ 
thus ^\ 

The Perfect has a mark on the second branch, 
thus 



■)( 



66. veubs. 

The Pluperfect has a mark on the third branch, 
thus 



K 



The First Future has a mark on the fourth -^ > 
branch, thus s/\ 

The Second Future has a double mark on the \/ 
fourth branch, thus /v^ 

Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, verbs, and participles 
thus: 

203. She was, is, and will be amiable. 

4 2 

Or the verbs, thus: 

204. She was. " Was" is a verb in the indicative mood, im- 
perfect tense. 

She is. " Is" is a verb in the indicative mood, present tense. 
She will be. " Will be" is a verb in the indicative mood, first 
future tense. 



205. EXERCISE. 

1. A trifle sulEces to put him in a passion. — 2. She is too weak 
to bear so much fatigue. — 3. She has perseverance enough to suc- 
ceed. — 4. There are few minds strong enough to resist the poison 
of flattery. — 5. When I was at school I loved play much better 
than my books. — 6. According to Tacitus, the ancient Germans 
hanged traitors and drowned cowards — all other crimes were pun- 
ished by fines. — 7. Cardinal Richelieu was the most skilful states- 
man of his time ; he possessed a firm and inflexible character, and 
neglected no means to accomplish his ends. — 8. I have been to 
church this morning, and I will go again this afternoon. — 9. I am 
quite ready, for I had finished my breakfast before you came. — 



VERBS. 57 

10. I shall go to a concert this evening, but we will all be at homo 
to-morrow. — 11. He will come this week if he can. — 12. We shall 
have been there and returned before you have done. — 13. You will 
have finished before we go. 



PERSON AND NUMBER. 
How are verbs modified by person and number? 

206. Verbs are made to agree in person and number 
with the noun or pronoun which is the subject of the 
affirmation; as — , 

Singular, Plural. 

1st Person. I love. We love. 

2d Person Thou lovest. You love. 

3d Person He loves. They love. 

What is a noun or pronoun termed, when it is the subject of the afiir- 
mation expressed by the verb ? 

207. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of the 
affirmation expressed by the verb, it is termed the subject 
of the verb, and it is in the nominative case. 

What then governs a verb in person and number? 

208. The subject of a verb governs it in person and 
number. 

What is added to the symbol representing the verb, to denote person 
and number ? 

209. The variations of person and number are marked 
with verbs as with nouns or pronouns ; thus ; 

f Singular 
Number. < 



[piural \/ 



58 VERBS. 

First \/ 



Person. ■{ Second 
Third.. 



X 

X 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and participles, 
thus: 

^ ^^^ 2. ^2\ j I 

210. I thought you spoke to us. No, but 

4 7 4 7 12 



my brother called you. We heard 

5 4 7 11 4 7 



/■- 



^ ,^ /^ 

him, but we could \ not / come. 

11 4 K....-' 7 

Or the verbs, thus : 

211. I thought you spoke. " Thought" is a verb in the indicative 
mood, imperfect tense, and agrees with its nominative, " I," in the 
first person, singular number. Rule VII. 

We could come. " Could come" is a verb, in the potential mood, 
imperfect tense, and agrees with its nominative, " we," in the first 
person, plural number. Rule VII. 



212. EXERCISE. 

1. When he came before his judges, he lost all his courage. — 
2. 1 live near the church. — 3. When I was in France, you were 



VERBS. 59 

in Germany, and he was in Spain. — 4. A number of Cossacks 
suddenly appeared on our flank. — 5. He leaped with joy when he 
heard that happy news. — 6. You always write your letters incor- 
rectly. 

CLASSES OF VERBS. 
How are verbs divided? 

213. Verbs are divided into regular^ irregular, tran- 
jitive, and intransitive > 

What is a regular verb ? 

214. A Regular verb is one that forms its Imperfect 
tense and Perfect Participle by the addition of d or ed to 
the Present tense; as, Present, love; Imperfect, loved; 
Perfect Participle, loved. 

What is an irregular verb ? 

215. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its 
Imperfect tense and Perfect Participle by the addition 
of d or ed; as, Present, write; Imperfect, wro^e; Perfect 
Participle, written. 

What is a transitive verb ? 

216. A Transitive verb is one that expresses an action 
which terminates upon some person or thing ; as, Henri/ 
RINGS the bell; Charles strikes the table. 

What is the person or thing called, upon which the action terminates ? 

217. The person or thing, upon which the action termi- 
nates, is called the object of the verb. 

What, then, is a transitive verb ? 

218. A Transitive verb is one that has an object either 
expressed or understood. 

What is an intransitive verb? 

219. An Intransitive verb is one that expresses mere 



60 VERBS. 

state of being, or that expresses an action which does not 
terminate upon any person or thing ; as, Charles lives ; 
the hell rings. 

Can all verbs be used both transitively and intransitively? 

220. Some verbs, such as, to strihe^ to load, to see, &c., 
are always transitive, while most verbs expressing mere 
condition, and a few others, are necessarily intransitive. 

221. Many verbs, such as, to write, to read, to run, to sleep, &c., 
only admit objects of the third person, neuter gender, and of a 
kindred signification vs^ith themselves ; as, To write some writing ; to 
run a race, &c. With such verbs, the object is frequently under- 
stood, and is sometimes so difficult to supply, that they are con- 
sidered as transitive by some grammarians, and as intransitive by 
others. 

What is added to the symbol representing the verb, to denote its 
various classes ? 

222. The Regular has no dot on the first branch, \y 
thus A, 

The Irregular has a dot on the first branch, '\y 
thus /\ 

The Transitive has no dot on the second branch, vy 
thus A 

The Intransitive has a dot on the second branch, 



thus 



X 



Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and participles, 
thus: 






I, 



223. Mary went to town to see her aunt, 

4 7 12 9 5 11 



VERBS. 61 






who loves her dearly. 

3 4 7 11 • 

Or the verbs, thus : 

224. Mary went. ** Went" is an irregular intransitive verb, in 
the indicative mood, imperfect tense, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive " Mary'^ in the third person, singular number. Rule VII. 

Went to see aunt. " To see" is an irregular transitive verb, in 
the infinitive mood, present tense, and is governed by the verb 
" went," upon which it depends. Rule IX. 

225. EXERCISE. 

1. He gives bad hay to his cows. — 2. I killed big rats in the 
barn. — 3. Turkey and Russia are now at war. — 4. The French 
and English fleets are in the Black Sea. — 5. A clayish soil requires 
quicklime. — 6. I know them by sight. — 7. He was killed yester- 
day. — 8. I have two houses ; each of them has cost me a thousand 
guineas. — 9. Mark the price on each book. 



VOICE. 

What is Voice? 

226. Voice is that modification of the verb which shows 
whether the nominative is the performer or the receiver 
of the action ; there are, accordingly, two voices : the 
active and the passive. 

When is a verb in the Active voice ? 

227. A verb is in the active voice when its subject 
performs the action expressed by it ; as, John steikes 
ine table. 

When is a verb in the Passive voice? 

228. A verb is in the passive voice when its subject 



62 VERBS. 

receives the action expressed by it ; as, John is struck 
hy Charles. 

How is a sentence changed from the active to the passive voice ? 

229. A sentence is changed from the active to the 
passive voice by making the object of the verb its nomi- 
native, and the agent the objective, governed by a pre- 
position ; as, The dog chases the pig ; The fig is chased 
hy the dog. 

230. Form the passive voice of — 1. John reads the book. — 
2. Henry calls Charles, — 3. The cat catches a mouse. — 4. Rust 
destroys iron. — 5. The teacher, will scold him. — 6. Her mother 
has sent her to me. 

231. Form the active voice of — 1. A house will be built by the 
carpenter. — 2. A letter will be written by him. — 3. I believe that 
the newspaper has not been read by you. — 4. That lesson has not 
been well recited by John. 

How is a verb conjugated in the passive voice? 

232. A verb is conjugated* in the passive voice by 
prefixing to its perfect participle the various moods, 
tenses, persons, and numbers of the verb to be; as, I am 
loved, Thou art loved, He is loved, We are loved, &c. 

What is added to the symbol of the verb to denote voice ? 

233. The active voice has no appendage, thus^^ 
The passive voice is marked thus y^^ 

What are auxiliary verbs? 

234. Auxiliary verbs are those which assist in forming 
the compound tenses of other verbs. 

* The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of all its moods, 
tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 



VERBS. 63 

How many auxiliary verbs are there ? 

235. There are eight auxiliary verbs : he, do, have, 
shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations. 

Are these verbs always used as auxiliaries? 

236. Be, do, have, and will, are also used as principal 
verbs ; as, I am a hoy ; I have a hooJc ; I shall do what 
is right; J will that it should he so. 

Conjugate the regular verb to love in the active voice. 

VERB TO LOVE. 
237. Principal Parts. 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 

238. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To love. To have loved. 

239. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person. I love. First Person. We love. 

Second Person. Thou lovest. Second Person. You love. 

Third Person. He loves. Third Person. They love. 

The present tense is also formed by prefixing the auxiliary do, thus: 

First Person. I do love. First Person. We do love. 

Second Person. Thou dost love. Second Person. You do love. 
Third Person. He does love. Third Person. They do love. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

With regular verbs the Imperfect tense is formed by adding d or 
ed to the Present, thus : 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

6* 



64 VERBS. 

The Imperfect tense is also formed by prefixing the auxiliary did 
to the Present tense, thus : 

Singular, PluraL 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love. 

3. He did love, 3. They did love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

The Perfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary have to 
the perfect participle, thus: 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

The Pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary had to 
the perfect participle, thus : 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved, 3. They had loved. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

The First Future tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall 
or will to the Present tense, thus : 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or v^ill love. 

2. Thou shalt or v^ilt love. 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

The Second Future tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries 
shall have or will have to the perfect participle, thus : 

1. I shall or will have loved. 1. We shall or will have loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. You shall or will have loved. 

3. He shall or will have loved. 3. They shall or will have loved. 



VERBS. 



65 



240. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [regular form). 

The Subjunctive mood has two forms ; the first, which is termed 
the regular form, is the same as the indicative, with a conjunction 
prefixed, expressing doubt or contingency ; thus : 



Singular. 

1. If I love. 

2. If thou lovest. 

3. If he loves. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Plural, 

1. If we love. 

2. If you love. 

3. If they love. 



1. If I loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 

3. If he loved. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 



1. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. 

3. If they loved. 



PERFECT TENSE. 



1. If I have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 

3. If he has loved. 



1. If we have loved. 

2. If you have loved. 

3. If they have loved. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



1. If I had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 

3. If he had loved. 



1. If we had loved. 

2. If you had loved. 

3. If they had loved. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



1. If I shall or will love. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love. 

3. If he shall or will love. 



1. If we shall or will love. 

2. If you shall or will love. 

3. If they shall or will love 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 



1. If I shall or will have loved. 1. If we shall or will have loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. If you shall or will have loved. 

3. If he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved. 



66 VERBS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [subjunctive form). 

In the subjunctive or second form, the verb is not modified in 
any of its persons. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If vre love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

In the active voice, this form is limited to the Present tense. 

241. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

"PRESENT TENSE. 

The Present tense of the Potential mood is formed by prefixing 
the auxiliary may, can, or musiy to the Present tense of the Indica- 
tive mood, thus : 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. - 3. They may love. 

IMPERrECT TENSE. 

The Imperfect tense of the Potential mood is formed by prefixing 
the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the Present tense of 
the Indicative mood, thus : 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

The Perfect tense of the Potential mood is formed by prefixing 
the auxiliaries may have, can have, or must have, to the Perfect 
Participle, thus : 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

The Pluperfect tense of the Potential mood is formed by prefixing 



VERBS. 67 

the auxiliaries miglit have, could have, would have, or should havCj 
to the Perfect Participle, thus : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 

242. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
This Mood is used only in the Present tense, second person. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Love (thou), or Do thou love. Love (ye or you), or Do you love, 

243. Participles. 

Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Loving. Loved. Having loved. 

Give the first person singular of the verb to love, in all its moods and 
tenses, thus : 

244. Indicative — I love; I loved; I have loved; I had loved; I 
shall love ; I shall have loved. Subjunctive — If I love ; if I loved ; 
if I have loved ; if I had loved ; if I shall or vrill love ; if I shall 
or will have loved. Potential — I may love ; I might love ; I may 
have loved ; I might have loved. The first person has no Impera- 
tive mood. 

Give the second person singular, in all its moods and tenses. 
Give the third person singular, in all its moods and tenses. 
Give the first person plural, in all its moods and tenses. 
Give the second person plural, in all its moods and tenses. 
Give the tliird person plural, in all its moods and tenses. 

246. How is the Present tense formed ? 
How is the Perfect tense formed ? 
How is the Imperfect tense formed ? 
How is the Pluperfect tense formed ? 
How is the First Future tense formed ? 
How is the Second Future tense formed? 



68 VERBS. 

246. What remarks are made with regard to the Subjunctive mood? 
What remark is made with regard to the Imperative mood ? 

Why is the verb to love transitive ? 

247. The verb to love is transitive, because the action 
expressed by it terminates upon some person or thing ; 
as, John loves study. 

Why is the verb to love regular ? 

248. The verb to love is regular, because it forms its 
imperfect tense and perfect participle by adding d to the 
present; thus, Present, love; Imperfect, loved; Perfect 
Participle, loved. 

Why is the verb to love, when conjugated as above, in the active voice? 

249. The verb to love is in the active voice, because its 
subject or nominative performs the action expressed by 
it ; as, I love. 

Conjugate the verb to he. 

VERB TO BE. 

250. Principal Parts. 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle, 

Am. Was. Been. 

251. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been. 

252. INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 
1. I am. 


PRESENT TENSE. 

1. 


Plural. 
We are. 


2. Thou art. 

3. He is. 


2. 
3. 


You are. 
They are. 







VERB 


s. 






1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
I was. 
Thou wast. 
He was. 


IMPERFECT 


TENSE. 
1. 

2. 
3. 


Plural. 
We were. 
You were. 
They were. 



69. 



PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been. 1. "We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been, 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have been. 1. We shall or will have been. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. You shall or will have been. 

3. He shall or will have been. 3. They shall or will have been. 

253. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The Subjunctive mood (regular form) is the same as the Indica- 
tive mood, with a conjunction, expressing doubt, prefixed to every 
person and number of each tense ; as, If I am, if thou art, if he is, 
if we are, if you are, if they are. 

Subjunctive form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 



70 VERBS. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

In the verb to he, and in the passive voice, this form is limited to 
the present and imperfect tenses. 

254. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be. > 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

255. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Be (thou), or Do thou be. Be (ye or you), or Do you be. 

Participles. 

Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 



VERBS. 71 

How is a verb conjugated in the Passive voice ? 

256. A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by pre- 
fixing to its perfect participle all the moods, tenses, per- 
sons, and numbers of the verb to he. (See 267.) 

Conjugate the verb to love in the passive voice. 

Is the verb to he always the sign of the passive voice ? 

257. The verb to he, -^vhen prefixed to a present parti- 
ciple, forms a kind of compound verb, which is said to be 
in the progressive form, and is in the active voice if the 
verb express action, but has no voice if the verb express 
mere condition. 

How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form ? 

258. A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by 

prefixing to its present participle all the moods, tenses, 
persons, and numbers of the verb to he ; as, I am loving, 
I have heen loving, I ivill have heen loving. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 
How are irregular verbs conjugated ? 

259. Irregular verbs are conjugated like regular verbs, 
only, their imperfect tense and perfect participle are not 
formed by the addition of d or ed to the present. 

Conjugate the irregular transitive verb to see in the active voice. 

VERB TO SEE. 
260. Pkixcipal Parts. 

Present. Imperfect. Ferfecf Participle. 

See. Saw. Seen. 

261. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Perfect. 

To see. To have seen. 

7 



72 VERBS. 

262. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I see. 1. "VVe see. 

2. Thou seest. 2. You see. 

3. He sees. 3. They see. 

or, 

1. I do see. 1. We do see. 

2. Thou dost see. 2. You do see. 

3. He does see. 3. They do see. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I saw. 1. We saw. 

2. Thou sawest. 2. You saw. 

3. He saw. 3. They saw. 

or, 

1. I did see. 1. We did see. 

2. Thou didst see. 2. You did see. 

3. He did see. 3. They did see. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have seen. 1. We have seen. 

2. Thou hast seen. 2. You have seen. 

3. He has seen. 3. They have seen, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had seen. 1. We had seen. 

2. Thou hadst seen. 2. You had seen. 

3. He had seen. 3. They had seen. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will see. 1. We shall or will see. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt see. 2. You shall or will see. 

3. He shall or will see. 3. They shall or will see. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have seen. 1. We shall or will have seen. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have seen. 2. You shall or will have seen. 

3. He shall or will have seen. 3. They shall or will have seen. 



VERBS. 73 

263. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD {regular form). 

The Subjunctive mood (regular form,) is the same as the Indica- 
tive mood, vfith a conjunction expressing doubt prefixed to every 
person and number of each tense ; as. Present, If I love, If thou 
iovest, If he loves, If we love, If you love, If they love. 

Form all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD {subjunctive form). 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I see. 1. If we see. 

2. If thou see. 2. If you see. 

3. If he see. 3. If they see. 

264. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may see. 1. We may see. 

2. Thou mayst see. 2. You may see. 

3. He may see. 3. They may see. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might see. 1. We might see. 

2. Thou mightst see. 2. You might see. 

3. He might see. 3. They might see. 

PERFECT TENSE, 

1. I may have seen. 1. We may have seen. 

2. Thou mayst have seen 2. You may have seen. 

3. He may have seen. 3. They may have seen. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have seen. 1. We might have seen. 

2. Thou mightst have seen. 2. You might have seen. 

3. He might have seen. 3. They might have seen. 



74 VERBS. 

265. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. See'(thou), or Do thou see. 2. See (ye or you), or Do you see. 

266. Participles. 
Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Seeing. Seen. Having seen. 

Why is the verb to see transitive ? 
Why is the verb to see irregular ? 
Why is the verb to see, when conjugated as above, in the active voice? 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

(See 228, 229, 256.) 
Conjugate the verb to see, in the passive voice. 
267. Principal Parts. 
Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 



n 


seen. 


Was seen. 


Been seen. 




268. 

Present. 
To be seen. 


II^l'lNITIVE MOOD. 

Perfect. 
To have been seen. 




269. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 

I am seen. 
, Thou art seen 
, He is seen. 


PRESENT 


TENSE. 

Phiral. 

1. We are seen. 

2. You are seen. 

3. They are seen. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I was seen. 1. We were seen. 

2. Thou wast seen. 2. You were seen. 

3. He was seen. 3. They were seen. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been seen. 1. We have been seen. 

2. Thou hast been seen. 2. You have been seen. 

3. He has been seen. 3. They have been seen. 



VERBS. 75 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been seen. 1. We had been seen. 

2. Thou hadst been seen. 2. You had been seen. 

3. He had been seen. 3. They had been seen. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be seen. 1. We shall or will be seen. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be seen. 2. You shall or will be seen. 

3. He shall or will be seen. 3. They shall or will be seen. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will have been seen. 1. We - shall or will have been 

seen. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. You shall or will have been 

seen. seen. 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

seen. seen. 

270. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [regular form). 

The Subjunctive mood (regular form,) is the same as the Indica- 
tive mood, with a conjunction expressing doubt prefixed to every 
person and number of each tense ; as, Present, If I am seen ; If 
thou art seen; If he is seen; If we are seen; If you are seen; If they 
are seen. 

Form all the tenses of the subjunctive mood (regular form). 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [subjunctive form). 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be seen. 1. If we be seen. 

2. If thou be seen. , 2. If you be seen. 

3. If he be seen. ^ 3. If they be seen. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I were seen. 1. If we M^ere seen. 

2. If thou wert seen. 2. If you were seen. 

3. If he were seen. 3. If they were seen. 
7* 



76 VERBS. 



271. POTENTIAL MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Smgular. Plural. 

1. I may be seen. 1, We may be seen. 

2. Thou mayst be seen. 2. You may be seen. 

3. He ma}- be seen. 3. They may be seen. 



rMPERFECT TENSE. 



1. I might be seen. 1. We might be seen. 

2. Thou mightst b« seen. 2. You might be seen. 

3. He might be seen. 3. They might be seen. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been seen. 1. We may have been seen. 

2. Thou mayst have been seen. 2. You may have been seen. 

3. He may have been seen. 3. They may have been seen. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been seen. 1. We might have been seen. 

2. Thou mightst have been seen. 2. You might have been seen. 

3. He might have been seen. 3. They might have been seen. 



272, IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Be (thou) seen, or Do thou be 2. Be (ye or you) seen, or Do you 

be seen. 



273. Participles. 
Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Being seen. Been seen. Having been seen. 

Why is the verb to see, when conjugated as above, in the passive 



VERBS. 77 

274. PROGRESSIVE F0R3I. 

(See 257, 258.) 

How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form ? 
Conjugate the verb to see, in the progressive form. 

275. Principal Parts. 
Present. Imperfect. Perfect Particijjle. 

Am seeing. Was seeing. Been seeing. 

276. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. PERFECT. 

To be seeing. To have been seeing. 

277. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am seeing. 1. We are seeing. 

2. Thou art seeing. 2. You are seeing. 

3. He is seeing. 3. They are seeing. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I vfas seeing. 1. We were seeing. 

2. Thou wast seeing. 2. You were seeing. 
.3. He was seeing. 3. They were seeing. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been seeing. 1. We have been seeing. 

2. Thou hast been seeing. 2. You have been seeing. 

3. He has been seeing. 3. They have been seeing. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been seeing. 1. We had been seeing. 

2. Thou hadst been seeing. 2. You had been seeing. 

3. He had been seeing. 3. They had been seeing. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be seeing. 1. We shaH or will be seeing. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be seeing. 2. You shall or will be seeing. 

3. He shall or will be seeing. 3. They shall or will be seeing. 



78 VERBS. 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

seeing. seeing. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. You shall or will have been 

seeing. seeing. 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

seeing. seeing. 

278. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD {regular form.) 

The Subjunctive mood (regular form) is the same as the Indica- 
tive mood, with a conjunction expressing doubt prefixed to every 
person and number of each tense; as, Present — If I am seeing ; 
If thou art seeing ; If lie is seeing ; If we are seeing; If you are 
seeing ; If tJiey are seeing. 

Form all the tenses of the Subjunctive mood (regular form). 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [subjunctive form.) 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be seeing. 1. If we be seeing. 

2. If thou be seeing. 2. If you be seeing. 

3. If he be seeing. 3. If they be seeing. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I were seeing. 1. If we were seeing. 

2. If thou wert seeing. 2. If you were seeing. 

3. If he were seeing. 3. If they were seeing. 

279. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be seeing. 1. We may be seeing. 

2. Thou mayst be seeing. 2. You may be seeing. 

3. He may be seeing. 3. They may be seeing. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might be seeing. 1. We might be seeing. 

2. Thou mightst be seeing. 2. You might be seeing. 

3. He might bo seeing. 3. They might be seeing. 



VERBS. 79 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been seeing. 1. We may have been seeing. 

2. Thou mayst have been seeing. 2. You may have been seeing. 

3. He may have been seeing. 3. They may have been seeing. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been seeing. 1. We might have been seeing. 

2. Thou mightst have been seeing. 2. You might have been seeing. 

3. He might have been seeing. 3. They might have been seeing, 

280. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Be (thou) seeing, or Do thou 2. Be (ye or you) seeing, or Do 
be seeing. you be seeing. 

281. Participles. 

Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 

Being seeing. Been seeing. Having been seeing. 

Is the verb to see, conjugated as above, in the passive or active voice ? 

282. The verb to see, conjugated as above, is in the 
active voice ; for its nominative performs the action ex- 
pressed by it. 

Can such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, &c., be conjugated in the 
passive voice. 

283. Such verbs as to write, to read, to speak, &c., can 
be conjugated in the passive voice when compounded with 
a preposition ; as, I am written to, which means some- 
tJiing is written to me. 

Conjugate the verb to write, in the passive voice. 
284. Principal Parts. 
Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

Am written to. Was written to. Been written to. 



80 VERBS. 

285. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Perfect. 

To be written to. To have been written to. 

286. INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am written to 1. We are written to. 

2. Thou art written to. 2. You are written to. 

3. He is written to. 3. They are written to. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I was written to. 1. We were written to. 

2. Thou wast written to. 2. You were written to. 

3. He was written to. 3. They were written to. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been written to. 1. We have been written to. 

2. Thou hast been written to. 2. You have been written to. 

3. He has been written to. 3. They have been written to. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been written to. 1. We had been written to. 

2. Thou hadst been written to. 2. You had been written to. 

3. He had been written to. 3. They had been written to. 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall or will be written to. 1. We shall or will be written to. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be written 2. You shall or will be written 

to. to. 

3. He shall or will be written 3. They shall or will be written 

to. to. 



VEKBS. 81 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 shall or will have been writ- 1. We shall or will have been 

ten to. written to. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. You shall or will have been 

written to. written to. 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

written to. written to. 

287. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [regular form.) 

The Subjunctive mood (regular form) is the same as the Indica- 
tive mood, with a conjunction expressing doubt prefixed to every 
person and number of each tense ; as, If lam written to; If thou 
art written to, &c., &c.. 

Form all the tenses of the Subjunctive mood (regular form). 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD [subjunctive form). 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I be written to. 1. If we be written to. 

2. If thou be written to. 2. If you be written to. 

3. If he be written to. 3. If they be written to. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I were written to. 1. If we were written to. 

2. If thou wert written to. 2. If you were written to. 

3. If he were written to. 3. If they were written to. 

288. POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be written to. 1. We may be written to. 

2. Thou mayst be written to. 2. You may be written to. 

3. He may be written to. 3. They may be written to. 



82 VERBS. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be written to. 1. We might be written to. 

2. Thou mightst be written to. 2. You might be written to. 

3. He might be written to. 3. They might be written to. 



PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been written to. 1. We may have been written to. 

2. Thou mayst have been writ- 2. You may have been written 

ten to. to. 

3. He may have been written 3. They may have been written 

to. to. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been written to. 1. We might have been written 

to. 

2. Thou mightst have been writ- 2. You might have been written 

ten to. to. 

3. He might have been written 3. They might have been written 

to. to. 



289. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Be (thou) written to, or Do 2. Be (ye or you) written to, or 
thou be written to. Do you be written to. 



290. Participles. 

Present. Perfect. Comjjound Perfect. 

Being written to. Been written to. Having- been written to. 



VERBS 



83 



291. LIST OF IKREGULAR VERBS. 

(See 215, 259.) 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am, 


was. 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke or awaked. 


awaked. 


Bear (to bring forth), bare or bore. 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore. 


born^. 


Beat, 


beat. 


beaten or beat. 


Begin, 


began. 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent or bended. 


bent or bended. 


Bereave, 


bereft or bereaved. 


bereft or bereaved. 


Beseech, 


besought. 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled. 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke or brake, 


broken or broke. 


Breed, 


bred. 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought. 


brought. 


Build, 


built or builded, 


built or builded. 


Barn, 


burnt or burned, 


burnt or burned. 


Burst, 


burst. 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught or catched, 


caught or catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave (to stick 


^^ • cleaved or clave, 


cleaved. 


adhere), 




Cleave (to split), 


clove or cleft, 


cloven or cleft. 


Cling, 


clung. 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clad or clothed. 


clad or clothed. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 



84 


V 


EKBS. 




Present. 


Imperfect 


Perfect Participle. 


Cost, 


cost. 




cost. 


Creep, 


crept. 




crept. 


Crow, 


crew or 


crowed. 


crowed. ^ 


Cut, 


cut. 




cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


durst. 




dared. 


Deal, 


dealt or 


dealed. 


dealt or dealed. 


Dig, 


dug or digged, 


dug or digged. 


Do, 


did. 




done. 


Draw, 


drew. 




drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt 


or dreamed. 


dreamt or dreamed. 


Drink, 


drank. 




drunk. 


Drive, 


drove. 




driven. 


Dwell 


dwelt or 


• dwelled, 


dwelt or dwelled. 


Eat, 


eat or ate. 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell. 




fallen. 


Feed, 


fed. 




fed. 


Felt, 


felt. 




felt. 


Fight, 


fought. 




fought. 


Find, 


found 




found. 


Flee, 


fled. 




fled. 


Fling, 


flung. 




flung. 


Fly (as a bird). 


flew. 




flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore. 




forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot. 




forgotten or forgot. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 




forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze. 




frozen. 


Get, 


got, 




got or gotten. 


Gild, 


gilt or gilded. 


gilt or gilded. 


Gird, 


girt or girded. 


girt or girded. 


Give, 


gave, 




given. 


Go, 


went. 




gone. 


Grave, - 


graved. 




graven or graved. 


Grind, 


ground. 




ground. 


Grow, 


grew. 




grown. 


Hang, 


hung or 


hanged. 


hung or hanged. 


Have, 


had. 




had. 





VERBS. 




Present 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Hew, 


hewed. 


hewn or hewed. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held. 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt. 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept. 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt or kneeled. 


knelt or kneeled. 


Knit, 


knit or knitted. 


knit or knitted. 


Know, 


knew. 


known. 


Lade, 


laded. 


laden. ' 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led. 


led. 


Leave, 


left. 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie (to lie down), 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lit or lighted. 


lit or lighted. 


Load, 


loaded. 


laden or loaded. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made. 


made. 


Mean, 


meant. 


meant 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mown or mowed. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Put, 


put. 


put. 


Quit, 


quit or quitted. 


quit or quitted. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Reave, 


reft or reaved. 


reft. 


Rend, 


rent. 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid. 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode or rid, 


ridden or rid. 


Ring, 


rung or rang. 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose. 


risen. 


Rive, 


rove or rived. 


riven. 


Rot, 


rotted, 


rotten or rotted. 



85 



m 


VERBS. 




Present. 


Imperfect, 


Perfect Particij}le. 


Kun, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn or sawed. 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


.Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


sod or seethed, 


sodden or seethed. 


;seii. 


sold. 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set,~ 


set. 


Shake, 


shook. 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped. 


shaped or shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved. 


shaved or shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


shorn or sheared 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone or shined, 


shone or shined. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shot. 


Show, 


showed. 


shown or showed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk or shrank. 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut. 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang. 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank. 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat. 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden or slid. 


Sling, 


slung or slang, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit. 


slit or slitted. 


Smite, 


smote. 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed. 


sown or sowed. 


Speak, 


spoke or spake. 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped. 


sped. 


Spell, 


spelt or spelled, 


spelt or spelled. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 





VERBS. 


87 


Present 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle, 


Spill, 


spilt or spilled, 


spilt or spilled. 


Spin, 


spun or span, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread. 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, sprang. 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood. 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole. 


stolen. 


Stick 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk. 


stunk. 


Stride, 


strode or strid, 


stridden or strid. 


Strike, 


struck. 


struck or stricken. 


String, 


strung. 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Strow or strew, 


strowed or strewed, 


strown, strowed, or 


Swear, 


swore or sware, 


sworn. [strewed. 


Sweat, 


sweat or sweated, 


sweat or sweated. 


Swell, 


swelled. 


swollen or swelled. 


Sweep, 


swept. 


swept. 


Swim, 


swum, swam. 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung or swang. 


swung. 


Take, 


took. 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught. 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve or thrived. 


thriven or thrived. 


Throw, 


threw. 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust. 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden or trod. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed or waxen. 


Wear, 


wore. 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet or wetted. 


wet or wetted. 



88 


VERBS. 




Present. 


, Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought or worked. 


wrought or worked. 


Wont, 


wont or wonted. 


wont or wonted. 


Wring, 


wrung or wringed. 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



Why are all the verbs in the above list said to be irregular ? 

291. The verbs in the above list are irregular, because 
their imperfect tense and perfect participle are not formed 
by adding d or ed to the present. 

NEGATIVE FOEM. 
How is a verb conjugated negatively ? 

292. A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the 
adverb not after the first auxiliary; thus, I do not love; 
or after the verb ; thus, / love not. The Infinitive and the 
Participles take the negative first; thus, Not to love; not 
loving ; not loved; not having loved. 

INTERROaATIVE FORM. 
How is a verb conjugated interrogatively ? 

293. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing 
the nominative after the first auxiliary; thus. Do Hove? 
or after the verb ; thus. Love If 

NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE FORM. 
How is a verb conjugated negatively and interrogatively ? 

294. A verb is conjugated negatively and interroga- 
tively by placing the nominative and the adverb not after 
the first auxiliary ; thus, Do I not love f or after the verb ; 
thus, Love I not f 



VERBS. 



89 



w 










-d S S c3 




1 1 




w 










1 ^ 1 ^ 




1 5 














5 if ° ^ 




a> o 




g 














t! ^ 




OQ 


- 


- 


- 


- 


M — ^ m m 




I— 1 "^^ 




g 




03 


Iz; 














> 




^ 










i ■ g 




• s 














1 1 1 1 




1 1 




P^ 










s s i-i ^ 




•s -s 














^ Is — ' -3 




Ol oo 




CO 










,a .Si '3 '3 


, , 


M M 




s 










OQ m ^ ^ 


'fi. 






•*< 


- 




— 


- 


M M M M 


h- 1 !— 1 


a 


^ 




^• 


H 










-S ? 


s^ 


r^ O 


cS 


&< 










^ - 1 


nS 


^ 5 


<D 


1 


o 






ft- 

8 


15 1^ 

.2 § ° a 


1 


1 1 


> 

t 


Oc 


o 






-S rC! ^ ^ 

•^ -^ ^5 il 




rO .£1 


O 




^ 






^ 


1 


M M 


S-i 

.s 

o 

> 






1 


- w 
o 

: I— 1 


M 1— 1 1— 1 hlj 






1 


-s ^ 1 ^ 

1 1 1 § 


1 

1 " 


1 


!^ 


^i 


> !z; 


g g ^ « 






PM 


t— 1 


-c^ 


)— 1 


c3 <:« > f. 


1— 1 )— ( 




tfS 


^1 


- CO 


M M a a 




;5 ;:3 






~ S 






^^ .^.^.^.^ 


tD 


., 


3 


H 


w 






C4 








■^ 


1 
1 












C/2 


J 

>r3 >r:S 


3 
CO 

o 


a 










g 


a-^£--B 




^ 












6 




1 








■ll .i^ 




.m 




1 




4 


.. 


HMMH 




MMMM 






' 


; 


~ 


I : <u -ki 












§ 




1 J 1 ^ 




i : 




1 








lilt 




^ 1 





90 



VERBS 



8 m- 



00 



ss 



1^ ^^ 









ii 



bOfcO 

a a 



gg 



o ^ o 

ii ^^^ 

MM sg 



!•§ II 

^1 II 






c2 






•I.. 

1 1 



i 


i 


r^ 


g 




-o 






5P§ 


cs 


.2^ 




%t 


g 


wl 


w 



g. 



■o^ 



il 



VERBS. 






a 


p 


p 


D 


















,a 


•^ 


•^ 


A 




i 


> 


-^^ 


shall ha 

loved, 
shall not h 

loved, 
hall I ha 

loved ? 
hall I n 

been love 


M 


I— 1 


TJl 


xn 



91 









m 

A^ o 

O O— I 



TJl X/1 



o -»J 



i_i M W H 



S a 






ft 

o 
o 

H 
O 

CO 

o 

CO 



I § 



^ ^ 



5^ 



«§ 



« 





fl 


•=^ 


i=l 


i 


i 


a 


a 


M 


M 


< 


< 






<a 


^ 


g 




•Ji 


^ 


^ 


-i 


1 


1 


f^ 


Q 


h 




f^, 


?> 


.S 


g3 


-;^ 


^ 


^ 


k 



92 



VERBS 





a 


« « 














M 


^ 1 ^ 












§ 
i 


might hav 
loved, 
might noi 
been loved 
ight I hav 
loved? 
ight I no 
been loved 


i 




M 


M g S 


W 


1 


been 
been 
been 


1 


i 


i 


have 

ave 

have 


may h 
loved, 
may not 
loved, 
ay I h 
loved? 
ay I not 
loved? 




^ 


M 


M S S 


. 


w 


•6 


'^ ^ ^ 


tf3 

O 
00 



^ I 



^ 


la 


-tj 


..-^ 


.yj 


fco 


s 


s fc 


g 


3 


ho 


MO 




M 


^ 


g 












■s 




-S 


'i 


fe 


? 


1 


k 


^ 


^ 


^ . 




-*J 






^ 


a 


^ 


^ 


>^ 


>> 


M 


M 


Fl 




S" 




M 


M 


g 


g 


1 


J 


1 


1 


t 


1 


1 


t 







^1 



CO 

o 

CO 



? fl 



ADVERBS. 93 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
What is an Impersonal verb ? 

307. An impersonal verb is one used only in the third 
person singular, with the pronoun it for its nominative ; 
as, It rains, it snows, &c. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
What is a defective verb ? 

808. A defective verb is one that is wanting in some 
mood or tense. The defective verbs are : 

Present. Imperfect. Pres. Participle. Perf. Participle. 
Beware. 



Can, could. 

May, might. 

Must, must. 

Shall, should. 

Will, would. 

Ought, ought. 

Quoth, quoth. 

Hark. 



ADVERBS. • 



What is an Adverb ? 



809. An adverb is a word used to qualify or determine 
verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs ; as, Se 
writes admirably; A well written letter; She is VERY 
good; A very well written letter. 

How are adverbs classified ? 

810. Adverbs are classified, according to their signi- 
fication, into numerous classes ; the principal of which 
are: 



94 ADVERBS. 

1st. Adverbs of manner or quality ; as, Well, very, truly, wisely, 
quickly, &c. A great many adverbs of quality are formed by 
adding ly to an adjective or participle; as, Wise, wisely; or by 
changing le into ly, as, Amiable, amiably. 

2d. Of place ; as, Here, there, whence, someiohere, forward, back- 
ward, &G. 

3d. Of time ; as. Now, to-day, yesterday, before, lately, to-morrow, 
hereafter, afterwards, &c. 

4th. Of number; as, Once, tvnce, thrice, first, secondly, thirdly, 
fourthly, &c. 

5th. Of quantity ; as, Much, little, enough, more, &c. 

6th. Of affirmation ; as, Yes, verily, certainly, really, &c. 

7th. Of negation ; as. No, nay, not at all, by no means, &c. 

8th. Of doubt; as. Perhaps, possibly, yerchance,8oQ. 

9th. Of interrogation ; as, How, why, wherefore, whether, &c. 

Are adverbs susceptible of comparison ? 

Sll. Yes; many adverbs can be compared; as, Soon.^ 
sooner, soonest. Those ending in ly prefix more and 
most ; as Happily, more happily, most happily. 

What is an adverbial phrase ? 

812. Several words used together, and performing the 
office of an adverb, are called an adverbial phrase ; as, 

I will BY NO MEANS do it. 

By wliat symbol are adverbs represented ? 

813. Adverbs are represented by a perpendicular line, 



with a short horizontal line at the bottom ; thus 



i 



Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs, 
thus: 

314. I wish you to apply carefully to this 

4 7 11 9 10 2 



PREPOSITIONS. 95 



my — '•' S 



L ^ x i^ 



study. I have . in vain / tried to do it. 

12 4 \ 10 / 7 9 11 

Or the adverbs, thus : 

315. To apply carefully. "Carefully" is an adverb, and be- 
longs to the verb " to apply." Rule X. 

Have tried in vain. *' In vain" is an adverbial phrase, and be- 
longs to the verb " have tried." Rule X. 

316. EXERCISE. 

1. She has taken so much medicine, that she has ruined her 
constitution. — 2. Tell your children to behave better hereafter. — 
3. If you have committed a fault, and sincerely repent, you may 
hope to be forgiven ; for the Christian religion has made sisters of 
innocence and repentance. — 4. His servant said that he was not 
at home ; but I really think I saw him at the dining-room window. 
—5. How dreadful are the effects of civil war! — 6. How painful 
to see brothers fighting against one another! — 7. We often resolve, 
but seldom perform. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

What is a Preposition ? 

817. A preposition is a word placed before a noun or 
pronoun to show its relation to some other word ; as, The 
table is befoee the window. 

Give a list of the principal prepositions. 

318. About, above, across, after, against, among, at, around, 
amidst, along, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, 
betwixt, beyond, by, concerning, down, during, except, excepting, 
for, from, in, into, near, of, off, over, on, round, to, through, 
throughout, toward, touching, up, under, upon, with, without, 
9 



96 CONJUNCTIONS. 

By what symbol are prepositions represented ? 

819. Prepositions are represented by ^^^-—^ 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, participles, 
adverbs, and prepositions, thus : 



- % 






320. Fire-arms were invented by the Chinese, 

4 7 13 1 12 



--^v 



i -^'VD 



3 



long before Europeans had any knowledge of them. 

10 4 7 2 11 13 12 

Or the prepositions, thus : 

321. Were invented 6?/ the Chinese. "By" is a preposition, 
and shows the relation of the noun which follows it, "Chinese," to 
the verb *' were invented." Kule XIII. 



322. EXERCISE. 

1. The earth is a mere point, compared with the rest of the 
universe. — 2. Do not make your friends uneasy, until you have 
sufficient reason for doing so. — 3. Keep silence until you are sure 
of the correctness of your opinion. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

What is a Conjunction ? 

323. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
clauses ; as, Mary and Jane sang a duet, but it was not 
much admired. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 97 

How are conjunctions divided ? 

324. Conjunctions are divided into copulative and dis- 
junctive. 

What do the Copulative express ? 

325. The copulative express addition, cause, or expla- 
nation ; as. He and his hrother reside in London ; He is 
loved BECAUSE he is good. 

What do the Disjunctive express ? 

326. The disjunctive express contrast or opposition; 
as. Be not overcome with evil, but overcome evil with 



Give a list of the principal copulatives. 

327. The principal copulatives are : And^ both, as, far, 

because, if, that. 

Give a list of the principal disjunctives. 

328. The principal disjunctives are: Or, nor, either, 
neither, though, although, than, yet, but, whether, lest, 
unless, save. 

By what symbol are conjunctions represented ? 

329. Conjunctions are represented by /" ■ 

Parse the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, participles, ad- 
verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, thus : 



L/-i=4''''''¥" 



-«? 



330. When Kegulus returned to Carthage, 

10 4 7 13 12 

'^--^ ' i--. r-Ti 

\r> s ^_____— -7= 7n/ \J -s 

: 3 3 



:\;^ I 



and announced the result of his 

14 7 1 11 13 5 



98 INTERJECTIONS, 



was condemned 

7 



to a dreadful punishment. 

13 1 2 12 

Or the conjunctions, thus : 

331. Regulus, &c., and announced, &c. "And" is a conjunc- 
tion, and connects the clause ending with "Carthage" with that 
commencing with " Regulus," understood. Rule XIV. 

332. EXERCISE. 

1. I will reward him and them at some future time. — 2. Go with 
him and with her, and do not return without them. — 3. A good 
scholar never mutters, nor disobeys his instructor. — 4. I have left 
them for him, but not for her. — 5. Your brothers did not know 
that I was behind them — 6. I believe that you write as well as 
she. — 9. John rises early in the morning and pursues his 
studies. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

What is an Interjection ? 

833. An interjection is a word used to express sudden 
emotions of the mind; as, Oh! what will become of me! 
Alas ! I fear for life ! 

Give a list of the principal interjections. 

334. The principal interjections are: Alas! Ah! Oh! 
Ho! Eem! Poh! Fy ! Pshaw! 



INTERJECTIONS. 99 

By what symbol are interjections represented ? 

335. Interjections are represented by ] 

Parse all the parts of speech, thus : 



! IT 



y^K V 



~r\ s 



336. Ob ! how dreadful to feel remorse. 

15 10 2 9 11 

Or the interjections, thus : 

337. "Oh!" is an interjection, and has no dependence on any 
other word. Rule XV. 

338. EXERCISE. 

1. Alas! my only hope is now in death, — 2. Fy! how can you 
think of such a thing? — 3. Hem! ifc may be so, but I much fear 
you are mistaken. 

339. GENERAL EXERCISE. 

Parse the following sentences. 

1. Some historians say that Hannibal committed a great fault in 
leading his army to Capua, where it became effeminate ; but let us 
consider that the soldiers were enriched with so many victories, and 
that any other town would have been Capua to them. — 2. Alexander, 
who commanded his own subjects, took, on a similar occasion, a de- 
termination which Hannibal, who had mercenary troops, could not 
adopt. He set fire to the baggage of his soldiers, and burned all 
their riches with his own. — 3. Before the Punic wars the Romans 
had no knowledge of navigation ; until then all their battles had 
taken place upon land. A Carthaginian galley went ashore on their 
coasts ; they made use of it as a model to build others : in three 
months their sailors were trained ; their fleet was constructed and 
equipped ; it put to sea ; met that of the Carthaginians, and con- 
quered it, powerful as it was. — 4. It is better to expose ourselves 
to ingratitude than to fail in helping distress. — 5. Never promise 
to do a thing without being sure of performing your engagement. — • 



100 INTEKJECTIONS. 

6. Obstinacy and Folly are sisters : both proceed from littleness 
of mind. — 7. Some people have such a habit of deceiving that at 
last they deceive themselves. — 8. Such as flatter you in this man- 
ner will probably slander you behind your back. — 9. Our distrust 
often excites the deceitfulness of others. — 10. There are few minds 
strong enough to resist the poison of flattery. — 11. Many men live 
as if they were never to die ; they ought to consider that it is the 
only certain event that they are to expect. — 12. Do not believe that 
you can improve without labor and attention. 



SYNTAX. 

What is Syntax? 

340. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of 
the agreement, government, and of the arrangement of 
words into sentences. 

What is a sentence ? 

S41. A sentence is an assemblage of words forming a 
complete sense ; as, Grrapes are refreshing. 

What is a simple sentence ? 

842. A simple sentence is one that consists of but one 
subject and one finite verb ; as, Almost every man has 
some hohhy. 

What is a compound sentence ? 

343. A compound sentence is one that consists of two 
or more simple sentences ; as, Qharles reads, and John 
listens. 

What is a phrase ? 

344. A phrase or clause is two or more words rightly 
put together, and not making a complete sentence; as, 
When he comes. 

What is meant by agreement ? 

345. Agreement is the concord of one word with an- 
other in gender, person, number, or case. 

What is meant by government ? 

346. Government is the power which one part of speech 
has of denoting the mood, tense, person, number, or case 
of another. 

(101) 



102 SYNTAX. 

347. Gexekal Yiew of the Rules of Syntax. 

Rule I. — An article belongs to the noun which it 
limits, or which it announces as limited. 

Rule II. — Every adjective belongs to a noun or pro- 
noun expressed or understood. 

Rule III. — A pronoun must' agree in gender, person, 
and number with the noun for which it stands. 

Rule IY. — The subject of a verb is nominative to it. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun in the possessive case 
is governed by the noun which it possesses. 

Rule Y1. — A noun or pronoun, in apposition with an- 
other, agrees with it in case. 

Rule YII. — Averh agrees with its subject or nomina- 
tive in person and number. 

Rule YIII. — Participles belong to nouns or pro- 
nouns. 

Rule IX. — The infinitive mood is governed by the 
verb, noun, or pronoun upon which it depends. 

Rule X. — An adverb belongs to the verb, participle, 
adjective, or other adverb which it qualifies or deter- 
mines. 

Rule XI. — A transitive verb in the active voice, or its 
participle, governs the objective case. 

Rule XII. — A preposition governs the objective cas^. 

Rule XIII. — A preposition shows the relation of the 
noun or pronoun which follows it to some other word in 
the sentence. 

Rule XIY. — A conjunction connects words or clauses. 

Rule XY. — An interjection has no dependence upon 
any other word. 



SYNTAX. 103 

AETICLES. 
Rule I. 

What is the Rule for the Article 1 

348. An article belongs to the noun which it limits, or 
announces as limited; as, The man; A hool'. 

B 5 E R Y A 1 1 X S . 
Are articles always joined to nouns ? 

349. Definite articles often relate to nouns understood ; 
as, TJie Old {Testament) and the Xeic Testament; Tlie 
good {men) are happier than the wielced {men). 

Where should articles be placed ? 

350. Articles should be placed before the nouns to which 
they relate; as, 17^^? man; a man. 

351. If an adjectiYe precede the noun, the article 
should be placed before it; as, The good man; a good 
man. 

352. All, suoTi^ many, what, both, half, and adjectiYes 
preceded by too, so, as, or how, require the article be- 
tween them and the noun; as, AU the stars; such a 
7nan ; mang a time; too long a voyage; as good a 
man. 

When should f^e be used, and when omitted ? 

353. The should be used when definite indiYiduals or 
things are referred to; as, The hook zvhieh lies on my 
table; the laborers that are out of u'ork. 

354. The is often prefixed to comparatiYes and super- 
latives, to mark the degree more strongly ; as, The more 
I say to him the less he does. 



104 SYNTAX. 

S55. The is sometimes used for the possessive; as, 
Look at me full in the face ; he fell^ shot through the 
heart. 

856. The should be omitted when individuals or things 
are referred to in general ; as, Books were formerly too 
expensive for poor people to read much. 

B57. The should be omitted before proper nouns ; as, 
President Pierce; General Scott. 

S58. When two or more adjectives qualify the same 
noun, the article, whether definite or indefinite, should 
be used before the first only ; as, The red and green 
carpet. But if separate nouns be referred to, the article 
should be repeated before each ; as, A red and A green 
carpet. 

When should the word a or an be used, and when omitted ? 

359. A or an should be used when a single but indefi- 
nite individual or object is referred to ; as, / saw A hoy 
with A hook in his hand ; George is A carpenter. 

360. A is used before little and few when the meaning 
is positive ; as, He has still A few friends and A little 
money. 

361. A is omitted before little and few when the 
meaning is negative ; as. He has few friends and little 
money. 

362. A or an sometimes stands for each or every ; as, 
He recites twice A day. 

368. A or an never stands before a plural word, though 
they sometimes convey an idea of plurality ; as, Athousand 
men; A few things. 

864. A or an sometimes indicates a kind or a class ; as, 
A bad hoy should he punished; A serpent is venomous. 



SYNTAX. 105 

365. EXERCISE. 
* Correct the following-, and parse all the articles : 

1. The farmers generally enjoy better health than the other men. 
— 2. The General Pierce is now President of the United States. — 

3. The boys that have recited may go ; the rest may remain. — 

4. He died by the hand of a murderer. — 5. He died by the hand 
of a sheriff. — 6. Can you play on the piano ? No ; but I can play 
on a flute. 



ADJECTIVES. 
Rule II. 

What is the Rule for the Adjective ? 

366. Every adjective belongs to a noun or pronoun, 
expressed or understood ; as, The good {^persons) in dis- 
tress are happier than the wicked [persons) in pros- 
perity/, 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Do adjectives belong- to nouns and pronouns only ? 

367. Adjectives may also belong to phrases or sen- 
tences ; as, To speak ill of one's neighbor is weong. 

368. When an adjective follovrs a verb, it generally 
belongs to the subject of the verb ; as. Mi/ house tifill he 
painted white. 

What remarks are made on the degrees of comparison ? 

369. The comparative degree refers only to two indi- 
viduals or objects, or to two classes of persons or things ; 



* In order better to test the knowledge of the pupil, some of these 
exercises will be written correctly. 



106 SYNTAX. 

as, John is wiser than Charles. But the superlative 
refers to two or more; as, John is the wisest of my 
scholars. 

S70. Double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided ; as, This is the unkindest cut of all; not the 

MOST UNKINDEST. 

371. Adjectives that express a quality incapable of in- 
crease or diminution cannot be compared ; as, Crive me a 
ROUND stone. 

What remarks are made upon adjectives expressing number ? 

372. Adjectives expressive of plurality can only be used 
with plural nouns; thus. Twenty pouiids; not Twenty 
jpound. 

373. A singular adjective often precedes a plural one 
to express a collective number ; as, One hundred men. 

374. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the adjectives : 

1. There cannot be more pleasanter weather than this. — 2. He 
bought four pound of butter. — 3. They ride more faster than we. — 
4. This is the flattest table in the room. — 5. Give me the roundest 
stone you can find. — 6. This lady is by far the most handsomest. — 
7. He is the amiablest man I know. — 8. Your son is the most 
troublesome boy in school ; he is much worser than he used to be. — 
9. My son is two year old. 

PRONOUNS. 
Rule III. 

What is the Rule for the Pronoim ? 

375. A pronoun must agree in number, gender, and 
person with the noun for which it stands ; as, John will 
speak to Mary, for he will see heb. 



SYNTAX. 107 

OBSERVATIONS. 
How are pronouns divided ? 

376. Pronouns are divided into Personal, Relative, In- 
terrogative, and Adjective. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Do pronouns always agree in gender, person, and number with the 
nouns for which they stand ? 

377. That rule, though nearly general, has some ex- 
ceptions ; the principal of which are : 

1st. The plural we is^ sometimes used for the singular /, by sove- 
reigns, editors, reviewers, &c. 

2d. The plural you is almost always used for the singular thou. 

3d. The neuter it is sometimes used for the masculine or femi- 
nine, Tie or sJie, when referring to very young children or small 
animals. 

4th. The masculine Jie and the feminine slie are sometimes used 
for the neuter it, when standing for nouns to which gender has 
"been given by personification. 

What should be the number and person of a pronoun, if it stands for 
two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by and 1 

378. If a pronoun stands for two or more singular 
nouns or pronouns connected by and^ it should be in the 
plural number; as, Leiois and Henry will Bee their 
mother ; and if the antecedents be of different persons, it 
should agree with the first rather than the second, and 
with the second rather than the third; as. You and 
I will see OUR mother; You and he will see your 
mother. 

What should be the number of a pronoun, if it has two or more sin- 
gular antecedents, of the same gender and person, connected by or or 
nor? 

379. If a pronoun has two or more singular antecedents 

10 



108 SYNTAX. 

of the same gender and person connected by or or nor, it 
stands but for one of them, and it should be in the singu- 
lar number ; as, Lewis OR Henry will lend me his hook; 
neither Mary nor Lucy would lend me her hooh. 

What should be the gender, person, and number of a pronoun, if it 
has two or more antecedents of different genders, persons, or numbers, 
connected by or or nor ? 

380. No pronoun can represent an antecedent to which 
it is not applicable in gender, person, and number; if, 
therefore, the antecedents connected by or or nor be of 
different genders, persons, or numbers, each of them must 
be separately represented by an appropriate pronoun ; 
as, Lewis OR Mary will lend me His or her hook; You 
OR he will lend me your or His hook. 

Are not singular antecedents, connected by or or nor, sometimes repre- 
sented by a plural pronoun ? 

381. If singular antecedents, though connected by or 
or nor, be referred to collectively, the pronoun should be 
plural ; and if they be of different persons, it should agree 
with the first rather than with the second, and with the 
second rather than with the third ; as. You OR your sister 
must ask him to your house. 

What should be the gender, person, and number of a pronoun, if it 
refers to two or more antecedents, which are not in tlie same clause with 

itself? 

382. If a pronoun is not in the same clause with its 
antecedents, it may, without regard to the conjunction 
which connects the antecedents, agree according to the 
sense with either or with all ; as, John and his sister will 
go to town, for she wants a new honnet, and he wants a 
new hat; Se or his partner will assist me, for they were 
friends of my father. 



SYNTAX. 109 

In what number should a pronoun be, when standing for a collective 
noun ? 

383. If a pronoun stand for a collective noun, and 
the sense implies unity, the pronoun should be singular ; 
as, The aemy will resume its march. But if the sense 
does not imply unity, the pronoun should be plural ; as, 
The ARMY will receive their pay. 

In what gender, person, and number should a pronoun be, when 
standing for a phrase or a sentence ? 

384. When a pronoun stands for a phrase or a sentence, 
it should be in the neuter gender, third person, singular; 
as, She is very pretty, and knows it too well. 

385. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the pronouns : 

1. John and Charles have lost his grammar. — ^2. You and I have 
broken my carriage. — 3. The bride or the bridegroom will invite 
me to his wedding. — 4. He and I will see him this evening, and I 
will give it to him. — 5. She or I will speak to your mother, but I 
shall not tell her of it. — 6. Our regiment was the first to enter 
the city and to plant their standard on the ramparts. — 7. After 
eating its breakfast our regiment started. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
May a relative pronoun ever be omitted ? 

386. In familiar conversation, the relative pronoun in 
the objective case is frequently understood ; as, The hooh 
{which) I read is interesting ; but in the nominative case 
it can never be omitted. 

To what do who and which relate ? 

887. Who relates to persons, and which to animals or 
things ; as, This is the woman who spoke to you of the 
house WHICH is burned. 



110 SYNTAX. 

388. Who relates so exclusively to persons, that such 
nouns as Army^ crowds company^ &c., require which for 
their relative ; as, The army which was beaten yesterday 
was composed of troops which were sent from England 
last summer ; The company in which he lives. 

389. If persons are directly and positively alluded to, 
who should be used ; as, The soldiers who were sent from 
England; The people with whom he lives; The friend 
WHO spoke to him, &c. 

When and in what way should that be used ? 

390. That, when a relative pronoun, is used for who and 
which, in the following cases : 

1st. After a superlative ; as, He is the best hoy that 1 have in my 
class. 

2d. After an antecedent consisting of two words, one of which 
requires whoy and the other which ; The man and the horse that you 
see yonder. 

3d. After the word who ; as. Who that knows him would have 
believed it ? 

Where should relative pronouns be placed ? 

391. Relative pronouns should be placed as near as 
possible to their antecedents ; as, A man who has a good 
conscience feels happy : not, A man feels happy who has 
a good conscience. 

What is remarked of the compound relative pronouns ? 

392. Compound relative pronouns include their antece- 
dent within themselves ; as. Whoever will ash for it; i. e., 
Any one that will, &c. 

What is the difference between whichever, whatever, and what? 

393. Whichever relates to things in particular, and im- 
plies choice ; as. You may take whichever you please ; 
i. e., either of these two, or one or more of these many. 



SYNTAX. Ill 

894. Whatever relates to things in general ; as, You 
may take whatever you flea^e; i. e., anything or every- 
thing that you 'please. 

395. Wliat stands for that which or the one which, the 
thing or things which ; as, You may take what you please ; 
i. e., The thing or things that you please, 

396. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the pronouns : 

1. Mary and Louisa will come this evening, and she will remain 
until to-morrow night. — 2. Farmer B. and his wife invited me to 
his son^s wedding. — 3. Ask James and Lewis whether they will 
lend me his book. — 4. The jury remained closeted for two days, 
but they could not agree. — 5. On the third day, the jury rendered 
their verdict. — 6. This is the very man who I wanted to see. — 
7. Allow me to introduce to your lordship the young man of which 
I spoke in my last. — 8. The book you have is mine. — 9. The troops 
with whom we were engaged were defeated. — 10. The workmen 
which had been paid retired ; but those which had not received 
their salary became riotous. — 11. She is the sweetest girl whom 
I ever knew. — 12. The boy and dog which you met are here.^- 
13. A young man is sure to succeed in life, who is laborious, 
honest, and moral. — 14. Whichever books you desire to read, I 
shall purchase. — 15. What volume have you? The first. — 16. 
Who do you speak to ? My friend. — 17. Which books do you 
want me to bring from town? Three dozens of Mitchell's Geogra- 
phy. — 18. Whom did I say should go ? "" 

NOMINATIVES. 

Rule IV. 

What is the Rule for the Nominative ? 

397. The subject of a verb is nominative to it ; as, I 

speak to him. 
10* 



112 SYNTAX. 

0BSERVATIONS. 
Is the subject of a verb always a noun or a pronoun ? 

398. The subject of a verb is sometimes an infinitive 
mood, a phrase or a sentence ; as, To speak is not wrong, 
hut TO SPEAK EVIL OE one's NEIGHBOR ^s vert/ wroYig. 

How should such sentences be parsed, with symbols ? 

399. Thus: 



To speak evil of one's neighbor is wrong. 

4 7 

_ Should every verb have a nominative ? 

400. Unless a verb be in the infinitive or imperative 
mood, it should have a nominative expressed in the same 
sentence ; as, I speah ; Harriet reads, writes, and sings 
admirably. 

Should every nominative belong to some verb ? 

401. Unless the nominative case be absolute or inde- 
pendent, it should belong to some verb. 

When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case absolute ? 

402. A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case ab- 
solute when it is placed before a participle, and is not 
the subject of any verb ; as, He heing dead, we have no 
more hope. 

When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent ? 

408. A noun or a pronoun is in the nominative case in- 
dependent when it is addressed, and is not the subject of 
any verb ; as, John, how are you ? 



SYNTAX. 113 

Where should the nominative case be placed ? 

404. The nominative case should precede the verb, ex- 
cept in the following cases : 

1. In asking a question ; as, Do I speah ? Does John speak 1 
Speak YOU to me? 

2. With the imperative mood ; as, Come thou to me. 

3. In expressing a wish; as, May you live to see it; Long live 
King James ! 

4. When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, there, then, 
thence, hence, thus, &c. ; as. Here am I ; Then will he repent. 

5. In making quotations; as, ^^ Bememher," said the Judge, 
*' your words are noted.^' 

405. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following-, and parse the words in the nominative case : 
1. Whom gave it to you ? Him. — 2. Him and her are of the same 
age. — 3. They and us will take a walk. — 4. He walks faster than 
us. — 5. Who is that? It is I. — 6. Went to see you this morning, 
but did not find you at home. — 7.1 am very sorry that you have 
a cold ; hope you will soon recover. 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Rule V. 

What is the Rule for the Possessive Case ? 

406. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is 
governed by the noun which it possesses ; as, My father's 
cane. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
What remarks are made with regard to the possessive case ? 

407. The word which governs the possessive case is 
sometimes understood ; as, He called at his father's 



114 SYNTAX. 

108. If two or more nouns 'in the possessive case de- 
note joint owners, the sign of the possessive should be 
added only to that which immediately precedes the govern- 
ing word ; as, John and Mary's /aiAer. But if the 
nouns denote separate owners of different things, the sign 
!of the possessive should be added to each; as, John's, 
-Thomas', and William's hats. 

409. The relation of property may also be expressed 
by the preposition of ; as. The hook of mi/ brother. For 
inanimate objects this form is preferable. 

410. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the words in the possessive case : 
1. John and William's caps were lost. — 2. My ancestors virtue 
is not mine. — 3. A man's manners frequently influence his for- 
tune. — 4. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's master was the despised 
Nazarene. 



apposition. 
Rule VI. 

What is the Rule for Apposition ? 

411. A noun or pronoun in apposition with another 
agrees with it in case ; as. Smith, the carpenter, has 
come. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
When is a noun or pronoun in apposition ? 

412. A noun or pronoun is in apposition when it is 
added to another noun or pronoun as an explanatory term, 
or to give emphasis ; as, Qharles, King of JEngland; John, 
the COOPER ; J, even I, did it. 



SYNTAX. 115 

Mention the principal occasions of apposition. 

413. 1st. Nouns and pronouns are put in apposition 
as explanatory terms ; as, Macauley^ the historian ; Grive 
me the hook, the grammar. 

2d. Proper nouns are appended to common nouns ; as, 
Lake Ontario ; The River Ohio. 

3d. Titles are appended to proper nouns ; as, General 
Pierce; Dr. Johnson. 

4th. Personal pronouns are put in apposition with 
nouns to determine the person ; as, I, Victoria, Queen 
of England. 

5th. A noun or pronoun may be put in apposition with 
a phrase or a sentence ; as, He had never been known to 
utter a falsehood; a fact which greatly influenced the 
jury. 

"Why does a noun or pronoun, used after the verb to he, agree in case 
with the noun or pronoun before the verb ? 

414. A noun or pronoun used after the verb to he is in 
apposition with the noun or pronoun before the verb, and 
should agree with it in case ; as. It was I who did it; I 
found him to he a sick man. 

Do any other verbs besides to be take the same case after as before 
them? 

415. Intransitive verbs and transitive verbs in the pas- 
sive voice take the same case after as before them, when 
both words refer to the same thing ; as. The hoy hecame 
a MAN ; I was named William. 

How do nouns in apposition form the plural ? 

416. 1st. Nouns in apposition are generally both made 
plural; as, Grive me the books, the grammars. 

2d. When a proper noun is put in apposition with a 



116 SYNTAX. 

common noun, the common noun only is made plural ; as, 
There are not two Ohio Rivers. 

3d. When a title is appended to a proper noun, the 
title only is made plural; as, The Misses P^^er; The 
Doctors Peter.^ 

If nouns in apposition be in the possessive case, which of them takes 
the sign of the possessive ? 

417. When one or more nouns are in apposition with a 
noun in the possessive case, and the governing word is 
UDderstood, the sign of the possessive is added to the first 
only ; as, O-o to Johns, the carpenter and joiner. But 
if the governing word is not omitted, the idea of posses- 
sion is expressed by the preposition of; as, Cro to the house 
of John, the carpenter and joiner. 

If the words in apposition form a complex noun, the 
last only takes the sign of the possessive ; as, The Qom- 
mander-{n-CRiE¥'s tent, 

418. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following-, and parse the words in apposition : 
1. Mary, her who you sent to me, entered the room. — 2. Did 
you think that us, your friends, your relatives, would abandon 
you? — 3. It is John, him who spoke to you. — 4. We, the people 
of the United States. — 5. I bought the knives at Johnson, the cut- 
ler's. — 6. I will do it, for David's thy fathers sake'. 

VERBS. 
Rule VII. 

What is the Rule for the Verb ? 

419. A verb should agree with its nominative in num- 

* Many persons, however, make the name plural, instead of the title. 



SYNTAX. 117 

ber and person ; as, I am ; Thou art, &c. ; He loves ; 
They LOVE, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

What observations are made with regard to the agreement of the 
verb? 

420. If an intransitive verb be placed between two 
nominatives, it should agree with the real subject of the 
assertion which precedes the verb, unless the terms be 
rhetorically transposed ; as, His first STOCK in trade was 
a few pieces of tape; A few pieces of tape was his first 
STOCK in trade. 

If the nominative be an infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, in what 
number and person should the verb be ? 

421. If the nominative be an infinitive mood, a phrase 
or a sentence, the verb should be in the third person sin- 
gular ; as, To give to the poor is right; To squander away 
wealth without discernment IS both foolish and sinful. 
But if a verb has for its nominative two or more infinitive 
moods, phrases, or sentences, connected by and, it should 
be plural ; as, To profess Christianity and to he a true 
Christian, are two different things. 

In what number should a verb be, if it has a collective noun for its 
nominative ? 

422. If a verb has for its nominative a collective noun, 
expressive of plurality, the verb should agree with it in 
the plural ; as. The jury were unahle to agree. But if 
the collective noun be expressive of unity, the verb should 
agree with it in the singular ; as. The jury renders ITS 
verdict; The Russian army was defeated and compelled 
to retreat. 



118 SYNTAX. 

If two or more singular nominatives be connected by and, in what 
number should the verb be ? 

423. If a verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by and, it should be in the plural number ; as, 
John and William weke at home yesterday ; My pen and 
my pencil are lost. But if the nominatives, though con- 
nected by and, be preceded by each or every, the verb 
should be in the singular ; as, Every man, every woman, 
and every child was killed. 

If two or more singular nominatives be connected by or or noi\ in 
what number should the verb be? 

424. If a verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it should be in the singular num- 
ber ; as, John or William is in the next room. But if 
one of the nominatives be plural, the verb should be made 
plural; as, Either he or his children were compelled 
to go. 

If a verb has two or more nominatives, of different persons, with 
which of them should it agree ? 

425. If a verb has two or more nominatives of different 
persons connected by and, it should agree with the first 
rather than the second, and with the second rather than 
the third ; as. He and I have heen there ; You and he 
ARE both in danger. But if the nominatives be connected 
by or or nor, the verb should agree with that which is 
placed next to it ; as, Neither thou nor I am the person ; 
Neither I nor thou art tJie person. 

Do the adjuncts of the nominative influence the agreement of the 

verb? 

42S. The adjuncts of the nominative do not influence 
the agreement of the verb ; as, The town, with all its for- 
tifications, was destroyed. 



SYNTAX. 119 

What is remarked of each, each one, not one, and none ? 

427. If each, each one, not one, or none in the sense 
of not one, be the subject of a verb, or be used before its 
subject understood, the verb should be singular ; as, Each 
of my friends has received a letter; Each one of his 
former friends HAS left him; Not one, or none,^ of my 
hooks HAS been saved from the fire. 

428. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the verbs : 

1. He were sick when I saw him. — 2. That girl sing sweetly. 
— 3. Will thou come with me. — 4. I will go with them. — 5. Hia 
family were his wife, his son, and his daughter. — 6. Her pride and 
her virtue were her strength. — 7. To utter such words are wrong. — 
8. To labor night and day fatigue both mind and body. — 9. The 
mob were dispersed. — 10. Your brother and your cousin is in the 
parlor. — 11. Each boy and each girl were punished. — 12. Neither 
Mary nor Ann are here. — 13. You and your sister were with us. — 
14. Neither thou nor thy brother wast here. — 15. The officer or 
three of the soldiers was compelled to remain as hostages. — 16. 
The ship, with twenty of her crew, were lost. — 17. Each of my 
children has received a good education. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Rule VIII. 

What is the Rule for the Participle ? 

429. A participle belongs to a noun or pronoun ; as, J. 
man studying as he does must succeed. 



* None sometimes stands for plural nouns ; thus, " None of my booJcs " 
may signify not one of my booJcs, or no books among my hooks. In the first 
case the verb should be singular, but in the second it should be plural. 
11 



120 SYNTAX. 

OBSEEVATIONS. 
What remarks are made with regard to participles? 

430. If a participial noun be preceded by an article, 
the preposition of should be placed after it; as, The. 
learning or a language is always difficult. In such sen- 
tences, the article and preposition are both used or both 
omitted ; as, The learning OF languages, or learning 
lafiguages. 

MOODS. 

Rule IX. 

What is the Rule for the infinitive mood ? 

431. The infinitive mood is governed by the verb, noun, 
adjective, or pronoun, upon which it depends; as, I wish 
TO SPEAK to him. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
What remarks are made with regard to the infinitive mood? 

432. The infinitive mood is sometimes used indepen- 
dently ; as, To say the truth, I do not like him. 

433. The verbs hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, 
and a few others, require the infinitive after them to be 
used without the preposition fo; as, You heard him speak; 
Let him not remain. But if these verbs be in the pas- 
sive voice, the preposition to should be expressed ; as. You 
were once heard TO SAY, &c. 

What remarks are made with regard to the tenses of the subjunctive 
mood ? 

■ 434. To express a future contingency, it is better to 
use the present tense ; as. If you pardon him not, he will 
he driven to despair. But to express doubt or supposition 



SYNTAX. ' 121 

with indefinite time, it is better to use the imperfect ; as, 
Were he as had as you say^ he would not have done it. 

What remarks are made with regard to the form of the subjunctive 
mood? 

435. If the verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, 
expresses present time, the regular form should be used ; 
as, If he STUDIES, he is right. But if the tense and the 
time do not agree, the subjunctive form should be used ; 
as. If he STUDY he will succeed. The same rule applies 
to the imperfect tense of the verb to he. 

486. If a circumstance, though conditional, be assumed 
as a fact, the regular form should be used ; as, As virtue 
advances^ so vice recedes ; He is healthy hecause he is 
temperate. 

437. When the imperative mood is followed by lest or 
that, the next verb should be in the subjunctive form ; as, 
Rise early, lest thou should he late. 

438. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the verbs and participles : 
1. The same causes does not always produce the same effects. — 
2. The affairs of others does not concern me. — 3. The envious man 
is as much afflicted with the happiness of others, as he is with his 
own misfortunes. — 4. To live soberly and righteously are required 
of all men. — 5. Although neither please me, I will take either. — 
6. He will not speak to you, because he despise you. — 7. His sister 
and one of his brothers is to be married on the same day. — 8. 
Henry the VIII. ascended the throne in 1509, in his eighteenth 
year, amidthe universal joy of the nation; he was married soon 
after his accession to Katharine, daughter of the King of Spain, 
and the first years of his reign was happy, both to himself and to 
his subjects. — 9. This, as well as his other works, were written in 
1840. — 10. House-rent and fuel is so expensive, that we will be 
compelled to move into the country. -^ 11. One of his friends have 



122 SYNTAX. 

been sick. — 12. My pencil or my pen are surely lost. — 13. Dr. P. 
and another physician believes that there is yet hope. — 14. Every 
soldier w^ere killed. — 15. William and his brother desires to be 
introduced to her. — 16. She says that she saw one of us, but nei- 
ther you nor I were there. — 17. When he was heard speak in so 
strange a way, no one dared to remain with him. — 18. The unfor- 
tunate Mary suffered great unkindness in her lonely confinement 
at Lochleven ; she at last succeeded in escaping, raised an army, 
and marched against the Regent ; but her army, which was com- 
posed of nobles, who had in haste assembled around her standard, 
were defeated at Langside. — 19. The studying a language without 
a teacher is not easy. — 20. One of the boys were here. — 21. His 
imprudent friend, and not his enemies, were the cause of his ruin. 

ADVERBS. 
Rule X. 

What is the Rule for the Adverb ? 

439. An adverb belongs to the verh^ participle, adjec- 
tive, or other adverb, which it qualifies or determines ; as, 
He speaks well. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Where should adverbs be placed ? 

440. Adverbs should be placed before the adjective or 
adverb, and after the verb; as, A yery fine and a very 
well behaved boy ; He speaks correctly. Sometimes the 
adverb is placed between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, 
I will NOT do it. 

What remarks are made with regard to the negatives and affirma- 
tives ? 

441. Way, no, yea, yes, when used singly to express 
negation or affirmation, contain complete sense in them- 
selves, and do not belong to any verb. 

442. Two negatives destroy one another, and are equal 
to an affirmative; as, There are NOT NO books on my table; 



SYNTAX. 123 

i. e.j There are some hooks. This mode of expressing 
affirmation is considered vulgar. 

443. With negative prefixes, such as, dis^ in, im, un, 
&c., two negatives form a pleasing and delicate mode of 
affirming ; as, M^ language is not lup'oper. 

444. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following", and parse the adverbs : 

1. I have not got none. — 2. Neither riches nor honors, nor no 
such perishing goods, can satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit. 
— 3. Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of her 
child. — 4. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
— 5. I have received no information on the subject either from him 
or from his friend. 

OBJECTIVES [governed hy verbs). 
Rule XI. 

What is the rule for the government of the objective case by the 
transitive verb ? 

445. A transitive verb in the active voice, or its parti- 
ciple, governs the objective case ; as, I see him. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Must all transitive verbs, in the active voicfe, have an object ? 

446. If a verb be used transitively, it must have an 
object expressed or understood ; as. The hoy turns the 
WHEEL ; John writes (a letter) to Henry. 

. Must the object always be a noun or pronoun ? 

447. The object, as well as the nominative, may be an 
infinitive mood, a phrase or a sentence ; as, She loves to 

DO GOOD. 

Where is the object placed ? 

448. Generally the object follows the governing word ; 
as, John touches Lewis. 

11* 



124 SYNTAX. 

449. If the expression be emphatic, the object some- 
times precedes the governing vy^ord ; as, This one attempt 
I will make. 

Can a verb govern more than one object ? 

450. A verb can govern two or more objects, if they be 
connected by a conjunction either expressed or under- 
stood ; as, I saw John, Henry, and William. But if 
two objects, not connected by a conjunction, follow a 
verb, one of them must be governed by a preposition un- 
derstood ; as, I gave him a book ; i. e., I gave (to) him a 

BOOK. 

In the passive voice, the object of the preposition is 
sometimes erroneously assumed as its nominative : as, 
He was given a BOOK ; instead of, A book was given to 
Mm. 

451. EXERCISE. 

Correct the foUovt^ing, and parse the objects of the verbs : 
1. Who did you meet during your walk? — 2. It is not me who 
have done that; it is him. — 3. Send me back the dictionary I lent 
ye. — 4. To ingratiate with some by traducing others, marks a base 
and despicable mind. — 5. I hope thee will never do such a thing 
again. — 6. Tell me what thee think of this. — 7. I speak to thou of 
these things, because it is full time that thou shouldst be informed 
of them. — 8. It is not them that have said it; it is me. — 9. The 
boys who you have retained are ready to recite. 



OBJECTIVES {governed hy 'prepositions). 
Rule XII. 

What is the rule for the government of the objective case by the pre- 
position ? 

452. A preposition governs the objective case; as. 
Speak to him. 



SYNTAX. 125 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Must the governing preposition always be expressed ? 

453. Prepositions are frequently understood ; as, Crive 
(to) me a hook ; he can walk (over the space of) jive miles 
(in) an hour ; buy (for) me some bread. 

Is the object of a preposition always expressed ? 

154. The object of a preposition is sometimes under- 
stood; as, He speaks in earnest; i.e., in an earnest 
MANNER, &c. At first I hesitated; i. e., in the first 

INSTANCE, &C. 

Is the object ever governed by more than one preposition ? 

455. In law papers and other documents, where fulness 
and exactness of expression are first to be considered, 
two prepositions may govern jointly the same word or 
words ; as, His will was deposited with, and preserved 
BY, Mr. A. 

Except in the above stated cases, such a construction 
should be avoided, and the sentence should be written : 
His will was deposited with Mr. A., and preserved by 
him. 

456. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the prepositions and words governed 
jy them : 

1. He travelled with you and I, last fall. — 2. The people towards 
who you behaved with so much kindness were unworthy of it. — 
3. To who did you lend it? — 4. With whom were you? — 5. He 
danced with and talked to Miss A. all the evening. — 6. He was 
speaking with she and he when I entered. — 7. Him who said it to 
you must have been mistaken. — 8. Who will come with me? 
Us. — 9. Who will read first? Me. 



126 SYNTAX. 

PREPOSITIONS. 
Rule XIII. 

What is the rule for the preposition ? 

457. A preposition shows the relation of the noun or 
pronoun which follows it to some other word in the sen- 
tence ; as This lady comes from England. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Where should a preposition be placed ? 

458. A preposition should precede the word which it 
governs, and both should be placed as near as possible to 
the word to which they relate ; as. He was confined to 
his BED when I saw him; not, He was confined, when I 
saw him, to his bed. 

459. Sometimes prepositions immediately precede one 
another, and are so closely connected that they should be 
parsed together as a compound preposition ; as, A voice 
FROM WITHIN Warned him. 

460. If a preposition precede an adverb, both words 
should be taken together, and parsed as an adverb ; as, 
Come AT ONCE, or depart forever. 

461. EXERCISE. 

1. Whom did you go with? — 2. She was playing, when I saw 
her, on the piano. — 3. She spoke to me and to my brother. — 
4. What country do you come from ? — 5. Who did you tell it to ? 

CONJUNCTIONS. 
Rule XIV. 

What is the rule for the conjunction ? 

462. A conjunction connects words or clauses ; as, John 
AND Henry are here. 



SYNTAX. 127 

OBSE R VATIONS. 
\ What is remarked of nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions? 

463. Nouns or pronouns (in the same phrase) connected 
by conjunctions, should generally agree in case ; as, Nei- 
ther HE nor SHE knew that you had come. But if the 
words connected be not in the same phrase no agreement 
is required ; as, Cio to her, for SHE is sicJc. 

Do conjunctions always connect words or clauses ? 

464.. Sometimes by an ellipsis or an inversion, the con- 
junction may lose the appearance of a connective ; as, 
That you are not guilty can he proved. But the con- 
nective nature of the conjunction is plainly seen if the 
ellipses be supplied ; as. The fact that you are not guilty^ 
kc. Or if the position of the clauses be changed ; as. It 
can he proved that you are not guilty. 

What remark is made with respect to the word as ? 

465. Many grammarians consider as, in certain circum 
stances, as a relative pronoun, equivalent to who or which; 
as, Avoid such as are vicious. 

What remark is made with respect to the word ihan ? 

466. There is generally an ellipsis of one or more words 
after than; as. He reads hetter than I {read). 

Give a list of the principal conjunctions, that have corresponding con- 
junctions or adverbs. 

- «« . (3-8 My writing is as good as yours. 

[so As the stars, so shall thy seed he. 

f as / am not so had as I seem. 

^ I that You never can he so had that you cannot amend. 

Either — or Either you or he must remain. 

Neither — nor Your composition is neither good nor had. 

Whether — or Tell me whether I must go or stay. 



128 SYNTAX. 

I'hough — yet — still. ..Though Tie is very had, yet lie may he redeemed. 

If — then 1y he says so, then you must he right. 

Both — and Both he and you were wrong. 

Not only — but also. ..Not only you, but he also was mistaken. 

f as Such language as he uses I 

\ that My health is such that I cannot go. 

468. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following, and parse the conjunctions : 

1. She and him do not live happily together. — 2. You enjoy a 
larger income than us. — 3. He told it to me, and promises me that 
you will know all about it. — 4. We saw it this morning, and them 
also. — 5. To be moderate in one^s desires, and working assiduously, 
is the surest road to success. — 6. Neither he or you would do such 
a wicked action. — 7. Though you forbid it, then I will do it. 



INTERJECTIONS. 
Rule XV. 

What is the rule for interjections ? 

469. Interjections have no dependence on any other 
word ; as. Oh ! save me. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
What remark is made with regard to interjections ? 

470. Sometimes an interjection seems to govern the 
objective case ; as, Ah! me! but some verb or preposition 
is always understood; as, AJi! {pity) me! 



COMMON ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED. 



ARTICLES. 

471. Never use the article a before a vowel or 1% mute, 
nor an before a consonant. (See 23.) 

Say: An aipe, an hour ; not, A ape, a liour. 
A day, a year; not, An day, an year. 

472. Use a definite article before a noun when you 
refer to definite individuals or things ; but use no article 
when you refer to things in general. (See 353 — 361.) 

Say : The doctor says, or the doctors say, that I am sick; not 
Doctor says, or doctors say, &c. 

Doctors think this climate unioholesome ; not, The Doctors think, &c. 

NOUNS. 

473. Never use a singular noun after an adjective ex- 
pressive of plurality. (See 372.) 

Say: Tivo pounds of butter; not, Two pound of butter. 
A boy three years old; not, Three year old. 

474. Never omit the possessive termination of nouns in 
the possessive case. (See 95.) 

Write : The king's guard; not. The kings guard. 

ADJECTIVES. 

475. Never use a plural adjective to limit a noun sin- 
gular, nor a singular adjective to limit a plural noun. 

(See 372.) 

Say: This kind of apples; not, These kind of apples. 
These kinds of plants; not, This kinds of plants. 

(129) 



130 COMMON ERRORS. 

476. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. 

(See 370.) 

Say: My horse runs faster than yours; not, Runs more 

FASTER, &C. 

This lady is the handsomest ; not, Is the most handsomest. 

477. Never use an adjective, instead of an adverb, to 
qualify verbs. (See 101, 309.) 

Say : He acts wickedly ; not, He acts wicked. 
She speaks kindly ; not. She speaks kind. 
He writes well ; not, He writes good. 

478. Never use an adverb, instead of an adjective, to 
qualify nouns. (See 101, 309.) 

Say : This butter tastes sweet ; not, Tastes sweetly. 
This loork looks perfect ; not, Looks perfectly. 
She looks elegant ; not, She looks elegantly. 

479. Never use the pronoun them for the adjective 
these or those. (See 101, 125.) 

Say: These or those hoys; not. Them hoys. 
Give me these hooks; not, Them hooks. 

480. Avoid the use of double negatives. (See 442, 
443.) 

Say: He did not say any such thing; not, He did not say no 
such thing. 

He has not any butter; not. He has not got no butter. 
He will not do anything ; not, He wont do nothing. 

PRONOUNS. 

481. Remember that the subject of a verb must be in 
the nominative case, and not in the objective. (See 
397.) 

Say : He w7io spoke to you is sick; not, Him icho spoke, &c. 
She ivho sent me wishes you well; not, TIek who .wnt me, &c. 



COMMON ERRORS. 131 

You and I will go; not, You and Me will go. 

You and they are friends; not, You and them are friends. 

482. Remember that the object of a verb or of a preposi- 
tion must be in the objective case, and not in the nomina- 
tive. (See 445, 452.) 

Say : Mary, her whom you engaged, is sick; not, Mary, she who 
you engaged, &c. 

To WHOM did you speak ? not. To who did you speak 7 
I will speak to you and her ; not, To you and she. 

483. Remember that nouns in apposition must agree in 
case. (See 411.) 

Say : Do you think that he, your friend, would do that ? not, 
That HIM, your friend, &c. 

We, the citizens of Philadelphia ; not. Us, the citizens, &c. 
I, Victoria, Queen of England ; not, Me, Victoria, &c. 

484. Remember that the verb to he takes the same case 
after as before it. (See 414.) 

Say : It is I ; it was thou ; not. It is me ; it was thee, 

I am he ; thou art she ; not, lam him^ thou art her. 
It was THEY who did it ; not, It was them who did it. 

485. Never add an apostrophe nor the letter n to pro- 
nouns in the possessive case. (See 128, 129.) 

Write : Its leg was hroken; not, It's leg was broken. 
He gave me his ; not. He gave me his'n. 

486. Never use the relative pronoun which when refer- 
ing to persons. (See 387-389.) 

Say: The man whom I saw; not. The man which I saw. 
The lady who reads; not, The lady which reads. 

487. Never use both a noun and the pronoun repre- 
senting it as nominatives to the same verb. (See 125 
and 532.) 

Say : Jane went to town; not, Jane, she went to town. 
The king assembled his ministers; not, The king, he assembled, &c. 
12 



132 COMMON EERORS. 

VERBS. 

188. Be sure that your verbs agree in person and num- 
ber with their nominatives. (See 419.) 

Say: Were you here? not, Was you here? 
Thou SHALT do it; not, Thou shall do it. 
He speaks to you; not. He speak to you. 

489. Be sure you make your verb agree with its nomi- 
native, and not with some other word in the sentence. 
(See 426, 427.) 

Say: Not one of my friends was there; not, Were there. 

My friends, and not my enemy, were the cause of my ruin; 
not, Was the cause, &c. 

490. Never make a verb plural, if its nominative be 
singular, though the latter have plural adjuncts. (See 
426.) 

Say: Three months^ interest was due; not. Were due. 

The ship, with all her crew, was lost; not, Were lost. 

491. Remember that a verb should be plural if it has 
two or more singular nominatives connected by and, but 
that it should be singular if the nominatives be connected 
by or or nor. (See 423, 424.) 

Say: Your father and mother are here; not, Is here. 
Your hr other or sister is hei^e; not. Are here. 

492. After the verbs to have and to he, use the perfect 
participle, and not the imperfect tense. (See 239, 267.) 

Say: John has written to his sister; not, John has wrote, &c. 
She has drunk my milk; not, She has drank my milk. 
He has fallen into the river; not, He has fell, &o. 
You have broken my knife; not, You have broke, &c. 
I am almost frozen to death; not, I am almost froze, &c. 
He has spoken to you; not. He has spoke, &c. 
Has he stolen your hook? not, Has he stole your hook? 



COMMON ERRORS. ^ 133 

She was taken sick; not, She loas took sicJc, 
We were almost shaken to death; not, We were almost shook 
to death. 

493. If you express past time without using the verbs 
to have or to he, employ the imperfect tense, and not the 
perfect participle. (See 239.) 
Say: I saw Mm; not, I seen Mm. 

I DID it; not, / DONE it. 

I SHOWED it to you; not, I shown it to you. 

He WAS there this morning; not. He been there, &c. 

She BEGAN to scold; not, She begun to scold. 

He RAN a race; not. He run a race. 

I THREW him down; not, I thrown Mm down. 

491. Do not give the regular form to the imperfect 
tense or perfect participle of verbs which are irregular. 
(See 291.) This error is principally committed with the 
following verbs : 

495. Yerbs in which the Imperfect Tense and Perfect 

Participle are alike. 
Imperfect Tense and Perfect Imperfect Tense and Perfect 

Participle. Patiiciple. 

Say: 1. Bent, not hended. Say: 15. Shrunk, ?zo^ shrinked. 

2. Bound, not bounded. 16. Slept, 7wt sleeped. 

3. Bled, not bleeded. 17. Sling, not slinged nor 

4. Burst, not bursted. [slang. 

5. Cast, not casted. 18. Sought, not seeked. 

6. Cost, not costed. 19. Stuck, 7iot sticked. 

7. Flung, 7iot flinged nor 20. Stung, not stinged nor 

[fiang. [stang. 

8. Ground, not grinded. 21. Strung, not stringed nor 

9. Kept, not keeped. [strang. 

10. Lent, not lended. 22. Taught, Qioi teached. 

11. Left, not leaved. 23. Thought, not thinked. 

12. Lost, not losed. 24. Wept, not weeped. 

13. Sent, not sended. 25. Won, not winned. 

14. Shot, 7iot shooted. 



134 



COMMON ERRORS. 



496. Verbs in which the Imperfect Tense and Perfect 
Participle are different. 
Imperfect Tense. Perfect Participle. 



Say: 1. Bore, 

2. Blew, 

3. Chid, 

4. Chose, 

5. Drank, 

6. Drew, 

7. Drove, 

8. Knew, 

9. Bung, rang, 

10. Bose, 

11. Sung, sang, 

12. Sunk, sank, 
18. Slid, 

14. Slew, 

15. Spoke 

16. Sprung, sprang, 

17. Stole, 

18. Struck, 

19. Swum, swam, 

20. Swore, 

21. Threw, 

22. Tore, 



borne, 

blown, 

chidden or chid, 

chosen, 

drunk, 

drawn, 

driven, 

known, 

rung, 

risen, 

sung, 

sunk, 

slidden, 

slain, 

spoken, 

sprung, 

stolen, 

struck or stricken, 

swum, 

sworn, 

thrown, 

torn. 



7iot 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 
not 



bored. 

blowed. 

chided. 

choosed. 

drinked. 

drawed. 

drived. 

knowed. 

ringed. 

rised. 

singed. 

sinked. 

slided. 

slayed. 



springed. 

stealed. 

striked. 

swimmed. 

sweared. 

throwed. 

teared. 



497. EXAMPLES. 

Say: 1. She hent the pin ; not, She bended the pin, 

2. His hands were bound; not, His hands were bounded. 

3. The doctor bled her; not. The doctor bleeded her. 
- 4. The boiler burst; not, The boiler bursted. 

5. A cannon was cast; not, Was casted. 

6. It cost him a great deal ; not. It costed him, &c. 

7. Hefung my hat over the wall ; not, Refinged my hat, &c. 

8. Your knife was ground yesterday; not, Was grinded, &c. 

9. He kept his word ; not, He keeped his word. 
10. I lent it to him ; not, I le7ided it to him. 



- COMMON ERRORS. 135 

Say: 11. He left his brother with me ; not, He leaved his brother, &c. 

12. I lost my book; not, I losecl my book. 

13. He sent them to us ; not, He sended them to us. 

14. They s?iot at a mark; not, They sJiooted at a mark. 

15. She sTirunli from him ; not, She sJirinJced from him. 

16. I slept until eight o'clock; not, I sleeped until eight o'clock. 

17. He slung a stone at me ; not. He slinged, nor slang, &c. 

18. I sought him all over the house ; not, I seeked him, &c. 

19. The pole was stuck in the ground ; not. Was slicked, &c. 

20. The bee stimg me ; not, Stinged nor stang me. 

21. Henry stinmg the beads ; not. Stringed the beads. 

22. She taught me my letters ; not, She teached me my letters. 

23. I thought he would have died ; not, I thinked he would, &c. 
X 24. He wept bitterly ; not, He weeped bitterly. 

25. The British won a battle ; not, The British winned, &c. 

498. 1. I i>ore the basket longer than you ; not, I bored the basket. 
I have borne the basket ; not, I have borned the basket. 

2. The wind bleiv the house down ; not. The wind blowed, &c. 
The wind has blown the house down ; not. Has blowed, &e. 

3. She chid me ; not, She chided me. 

She has chid or chidden me ; not, She has chided me. 

4. Charles chose the best one ; not, Choosed the best one. 
Charles has chosen the best one ; not, Has choosed, &c. 

6. She drank my milk ; not, She druiik nor drinked my milk. 
She has drunk my niilk ; not, She has drinked my milk. 

6. I drew that picture ; not, I draioed that picture. 

I have drawn that picture ; not, I have drawed that picture. 

7. He drove very fast , not. He drived very fast. 

He has driven very fast ; not. He has drived very fast. 

8. I knew her very well ; not, I knowed her very well. 

I have known her for many years ; not, I have knowed, &c. 

9. He rung or rang the bell ; not. He ringed the bell. 
He has rung the bell ; not. He has Hnged the bell. 

10. We rose at break of day ; not. We rised at break of day. 
We have risen early; not. We have rised early. 
12* " 



136 COMMON EEEORS. 

Say: 11. They sung or sang a duet; not, They singed a duet. 
"They have sung a duet ; not, They have singed a duet. 

12. The ship sunk or sank ; not. The ship sinke.d. 
The ship has sunk; not. The ship has sinked. 

13. He slid across the pond ; not, He slided across the pond. 
He has slidden across the pond ; not, He has slided, &c. 

14. He slew his enemy ; not, He slayed his enemy. 

He has slain his enemy; not. He has slayed his enemy. 

15. I spoke to her about it ; not, I speaked to her about it. 
She has spoken to you ; not, She has speaked to you. 

16. He sprung or sprang from the ground ; not. He springed, &c. 
He has sprung, &c. ; not, Pie has springed, &c. 

17. He stole my pencil ; not. He stealed my pencil. 
He has stolen it ; not, He has stealed it. 

18. The ship struck on a rock ; not, The ship striked on a rock. 
The ship has struck; not, The ship has striked. 

19. He sicum or swam across the river; not. He swimmed, &c. 
He has swum across, &c. ; not. He has swimmed across, &c. 

20. The man swore that he had not done it ; not, sweared, &c. 
The man has sworn, &c. ; not. The man has sweared, &c. 

21. He threw me dovrn ; not. He throwed me down. 

I have thrown him down ; not, I have throwed him dowD. 

22. He tore my book ; not. He teared my book. 

I have torn my book; not, I have teared my book. 

499. The following abbreviations, though perhaps ad- 
missible in poetry and in conversation, should never be 
used in writing prose : 

Write : Can not, not can't. Write : He is, not he's. 

Could not, not couldn't. He will, not he'll. 

Do not, not don't. I am, not I'm. 

Did not, not didn't. It is, not 'tis. 

Does not, not doesn't. I would, not I'd. 

Has not, not hasn't. I will, not I'll. 

Have not, not haven't. Must not, not musn't. 



COMMON ERRORS 



137 



We have, not we've. 
Who vrill, not who'll 
Who have, not who've. 
Would not, not wouldn't. 
Will not, not won't. 
You have, not you've. 
You are, not you're. 
You will, not you'll. 
You would, not you'd. 



Write : She is, not she's. Write 

She will, not she'll. 

Should not, not shouldn't. 

Thou art, not thou'rt. 

Thou wouldst, not thou'dst. 

They have, not they've. 

They will, not they'll. 

They would, not they'd. 

They are, not they're. 

We are, not we're. 
And a few others, in which the sound is not much affected by 
the abbreviation. 

500. The following are vulgar, and should not be used 
either in writing or speaking : 

Write or say : Am not ; not ain't, nor amn't. 
Are not, not aren't. 
Be not, not ben't. 
Have not, 7iot hain't. 
Is not, not isn't. 
May not, not mayn't. 
Might not, not mightn't. 
Shall not, not shan't. 
It is not, not faint. 
Were not, not weren't. 
And a few others, in which the spelling or the sound is mate- 
rially altered by the abbreviation. 



AVOID THE FOLLOWING VULGARISMS AND MISAPPLICATION 
OF WORDS. 

501. Attachted; for attached. 

Say : He was attacked by robbers ; not. He was attachted^ &c. 

502. Be; for am or are. 

Say : I am going there ; not, I he going there. 

You are going there ; not, You be going there. 



138 COMMON ERRORS, 

508. To heat; for, to excels to surpass. 

Say: That can not be excelled; not, That can not be beat. 

It 18 wondei'ful ; it is extraordinari/ ; -) , t, ^ 

T^ ■ ,-,. ^not, It beats all. 

It surpasses everything; j 

5M. Bad; for, ill, sicJc. 
Say : She is not so sick this evening ; not, She is not so bad, &c. 
He is very ill indeed ; not, He is very bad indeed. 

505. To calculate, to expect, to guess, to reckon; for, 
to intend, to design, to believe, to supjjose, to think. 

Say : I intend to do it this evening ; not, I calculate to do it, &c. 
I believe it will all be right; not, I guess it will all be right. 
I tlihik you have seen her ; not, I expect you have seen her. 
I design to be back before night ; not, I reckon to be back, &c. 

506. Dreadful, mighty, monstrous ; for, very, extremely, 
exceedingly. 

Say : She is very obliging ; not, She is dreadful obliging. 
He is exceedingly proud ; not, He is monstrous proud. 
You seem to be in a very great hurry ; not, In a mighty, &c. 

507. To fire; for, to throw. 

Say: He ^^rew a stone ; not, He ^rec? a stone. 

508. To have like, or to he like ; for, to he near, to he 
on the point. 

Say : She was on the point of "j not, She was like to have fallen 
falling into the river j into the river. 

509. Hold on; for, wait, stop. 

Say : Wait, or stop, I want to ■> not. Hold on, I want to speak 
speak to you . . » J to you. 

510. To have got; for, to have, to he compelled, to he 
under the necessity of. 

Say : I have your book ; not, I have got your book. 
I must do it ; I am compelled to do it; 



^ . , - . , not, I have qot to do it. 

It IS my duty to do it ' 



COMMON ERKORS. 139 

511. Heap; for much. 

Say : We had much trouble ; not, We had a heap of trouble. 

You have much more money than I; not, You have a heap, &c. 

512. Like; for as. 

Say : He thinks as I do ; not, He thinks like I do. 

513. To feel like; for, to feel disposed, inclined. 
Say : \ felt inclined to strike him ; not Ifelt like striking him. 

514. To lie, for to lay ; and to lay, for to lie. 

{To lie is used intransitively, and to lay transitively.) 

Say : Lie on your bed ; not, Laij on your bed. 

Lay this cloak on my bed ; not, Lie this cloak on my bed. 

515. To learn; for to teach. 

Say : She taught me my letters ; not, She learnt me my letters. 

516. To licJc; for, to heat, to whip. 

Say : He wants to beat me ; not. He wants to lick me. 

The coachman whips his horses ; not. Licks his horses. 

517. To lick, to whip; for, to defeat, to rout. 

Say : The British were defeated ) , ^, -,.,-, 

y not, W ere licked, nor whipped. 
or routed J -^-^ 

518. To let on; for, to say, to inform, to disclose. 

Say : Do not say that you have ] not, Do not let on that you have 



seen me seen me 



519. To make out; for, to succeed in, to manage with. 

Say : He succeeded in keeping out ] not, We made out to keep out 
of debt J of debt. 

520. Mad; for angry. 

Say : She is angry because you "j not, She is mad because you 
laughed at her J laughed at her. 



140 COMMON ERRORS. 

521. Never ; for ever. 

Say : Let him be ever so strong, "i not, Let him be never so strong, 
I fear him not J &c. 

522. Nowheres, anywheres; for, nowhere^ anywhere. 
Say : They are nowhere to be found ; not, NowJieres to be found. 

Anywhere about the house ; not, Anywheres about the house. 

523. Preventative; for preventive. 

Say : Cleanliness is a great prevent- 1 not, Cleanliness is a great j^re- 
ive against sickness J ventative against sickness. 

524. Quite; for, great, large, considerable. 

^ „ . , f not, He has quite a number of 

Say : He has a great many oxen ; J ^ 

525. Right; for, very, quite. 

Say : He is a very good man ; not, He is a right good man. 
She is quite handsome ; not, She is right handsome. 

526. To sit, for to set; and to set, for to sit. 

{To sit is used intransitively, and to set transitively.) 

Say : Sit on that chair ; not. Set on that chair. 
Set the table ; not. Sit the table. 

527. To tell apart; for, to distinguish the one from the 

other. 

Say : Your sisters are so alike, "\ not, Your sisters are so alike, 
that I can never distinguish y that I can never tell them 
the one from the other j apart. 

528. Ugly ; for, had, wicked, ill tempered. 

Say : He is so ill-tempered that I ") not. He is so ugly that I will 
■will have nothing to do with V have nothing to do with 

him 3 hi"^- 

I have a had toothache ; not, I have an ugly toothache. 



COMMON ERRORS. 141 

529. To take on ; for, to grieve. 

Say : You must not grieve in this ] not, You must not take on in 
way J this way. 

580. Will, for shall; and shall, for will. 
Say: I shall drown, and nobody] not, I will drown, and nobody 
will help me j sliaU help me. 

531. Worst hind, hadly, very hadly ; for, very much., 
extremely. 

not, I had the worst hind 



Say : I wished to see you very much , , ^ -, . 

[of desire to see you. 

She loved him very much ; not. She loved him very hadly. 



TAUTOLOGY AND REDUNDANCY. 



532. Avoid the use of Superfluous Words. 
EXAMPLES. 

Superfluous words Sentences in which superfluous words are used, 

used in the examples. 

New You do very well for a new beginner. 

Pride or vanity He had so much pride and vanity that he 

despised others. 

Equivocal or ambiguous Such equivocal and ambiguous expressions 
mark a formed intention to deceive. 

CiLeerful ov Jiappy Her cheerful, happy temper endears her 

to her friends. 

Unibrageous His chair was placed under the umbra- 
geous shade of a tree. 

For She was very happy for to see you. 

Latter His latter end was peace. 

Courage or fortitude..,. He displayed much courage and fortitude. 

Piety or religion She was a pattern of piety, virtue, and re- 
ligion. 

Over He recited his lesson over again. 

Last ov final When the last final sound of the orchestra 

was heard. 

Dull He is a dull blockhead. 

At Where shall I stop at ? 

Ever or always Whenever I go out it always rains. 

First.. ..... Before I do that I must first do this. 

Clear or obvious The inference was clear and obvious. 

Up He ascends up in a balloon this evening. 

Hot The soup was boiling hot. 

Four A four square handkerchief. 

Down He descended down from his chair. 

Now He and his family are now present. 

(142) 



TAUTOLOGY AND REDUNDANCY. 143 

Superfluous words „ , . ■.. x, a 

. ,, , Sentences m which superfluous words are used, 

used m the examples. 

Up As soon as I awoke I rose up. 

Mutually or to each other They were mutually friendly to each other. 

Small or little Give me a small, little piece. 

Female ] She was a female doctress, and was uni- 



, ..■) She 
...I V€ 



Universally or hy all ... j versally loved by all. 

Free The book can be had free gratis. 

533. EXERCISE. 

Correct the fonowing : 

1. The enemy were killed and slaughtered by thousands. — 2. Did 
he give you that knife for nothing? — 3. I saw a great big man. — 
4. He was struck on the head, and fell down on the ground without 
uttering a single word. — 5. Prayers, entreaties, and supplications 
were useless. — 6. When they saw that life was extinct, and that he 
was dead, they could not forbear from weeping. — 7. He was unani- 
mously elected by all. — 8. Mix the flour and milk together, and 
stir it round. — 9. Come back again as soon as you have seen her. — 

10. They were never known to do such a thing on any occasion. — 

11. Mary, she went to see her yesterday. — 12. I am glad, happy, 
and satisfied that he has returned. — 13. It is a distressing, fearful, 
and disastrous calamity. — 14. The king, he returned to the palace. 
— 15. A poor, destitute old m^n. — 16. A genteel and amiable girl. — 
17'. I saw them with my own eyes. — 18. Speak the truth, and be 
sure that you utter no falsehood. 



13 



AMBIGUITY. 



534. Be careful you so arrange your words and phrases 
as to leave no ambiguity in the meaning. * 

^35. Do not introduce a noun between an adjective and 
the noun to which it belongs. 
Say: A bottle of good loine; not, A good bottle of wins. 

A pair of thick shoes; not, A thick pair of shoes. 

Some ladies' velvet cloaks; not, Some velvet ladies' cloaks. 

Ladies' walking shoes; not, Walking ladies' shoes. 

Gentlemen's riding gloves; not, Riding gentlemen's gloves. 

A cup of warm tea; not, A loarm cup of tea. 

536. A clause used to modify, explain, or amplify, 
should be immediately connected with the phrase or 
passage to which it belongs. 



Say: 

To let, with board, to two gen- 
tlemen, a furnished front parlor. 

To let, to a gentleman, a plea- 
sant room, suitable for a lady. 

Wanted, a young man of pre- 
possessing appearance to attend 
a store. 

Wanted, a girl of quiet and 
industrious habits to attend a 
dairy and milk cows. 

He was writing on his slate 
when you saw him. 

She was milking the cows 
when you called her. 



Do not say: 

To let, a front parlor furnished, 
with board for two gentlemen. 

A pleasant room to let to a gen-' 
tleman, suitable for a lady. 

Wanted, a young man to attend 
a store, of prepossessing appear- 
ance. 

Wanted, a girl to attend a dairy 
and milk cows, of quiet and in 
dustrious habits. 

He was writing, when you saw ^ 
him, on his slate. 

She was milking, when you 
called her, the cows. 

(144) 



AMBIGUITY. 145 

537. When you use a pronouu, be careful that its refe- 
rence to its noun be perfectly clear; for if there be the 
least ambiguity, the noun should be repeated. 

Note. — In the following, the pronouns in italics should be replaced 
by the nouns for which they stand. 

Early in October, the forces of Napoleon were marshalled on the 
plains of Germany, and the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, 
acted on the defensive ; lie advanced rapidly on Vienna, &c. 

Both Hannibal and Scipio now prepared for a decisive engage- 
nient, but Ms forces vrere mostly raw recruits, while those of his 
rival," &c. 

Alexander had left the government at home to Antipater, the 
faithful counsellor of his father and of himself. On Ms death, the 
European provinces were assigned to Mm, &c. 

538. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 
1. He traversed a country which had never been trodden, but by 
Indians and ferocious animals, most of which were declared ene- 
mies. — 2. He had a big driver's whip in his hand. — 3. Wanted, a 
porter on board a steamboat, of strict honesty and good moral cha- 
racter. — 4. She had dropped a dollar, and was looking for it when 
I Jeft her, on the carpet. — 5. It began to rain, and the beautiful 
pink lady's silk bonnet was quite spoiled. — 6. Wanted, a girl to 
do housework, by a small family, with good city reference. — 7. On 
the 17th of August, Napoleon attacked the Russian army at Smo- 
lensko ; after a fearful contest the Russians were driven from their 
position, but on entering the city they found that it had been set 
on fire by the enemy. — 8. The British then advanced and attacked 
the Americans, who were advantageously posted on a hill between 
two woods ; the combat lasted for nearly three hours, and was 
maintained on both sides with equal resolution; but at last the 
ammunition failed, and they were compelled to retire. — 9. On 
cold mornings I like to drink a warm cup of coffee before going 
out, — 10. I found a white lady's handkerchief. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

539. EXERCISE. 

(See 14—23, and 348 — 354.) 
1. He has undertaken a too long voyage. — 2. Bring me books 
which are in my room. — 3. The books are becoming so numerous 
that one cannot find time even to become acquainted v^ith the 
titles of the hundredth part of them. — 4. The Emperor Alexander 
is making great preparations for the war. — 5. George intends to 
become printer. — 6. The carpenters are very well paid in this 
city. — 7. My mother has a red, a blue, and a green carpet in her 
parlor. — 8. The red, white, and blue flags were blended into one, 
and the standard of the French nation became three-colored. — 
9. He is not yet quite destitute, for he has few friends and little 
credit. — 10. We saw a old man and a old woman. — 11. I wanted 
to learn to play on a violin, but my mother bought me the flute. 

540. EXERCISE. 

(See 101 — 113, and 366—373.) 
1. This is the beautifulest lady in the room. — 2. Eliza is much 
more handsomer than her sisters. — 3. He is much amiabler than 
you are. — 4. John is the troublesomest scholar in our school. — 
5. Louis can not read good. — 6. Mary dresses quite tasteful and 
elegant. — 7. Charles is less wiser than Peter. — 8. Give them 
books to my brother. — 9. AVhich do you prefer, this apple or that 
apple? — 10. My brother is more younger than you. — 11. Louisa 
is the smarter of my pupils. — 12. Caroline is the prettiest of her 
sisters. — 13. Which is the squarest of these two squares ? — 14. He 
was five year and six month old on the first of January. — 15. I 
do not like any of this kinds of fruit. — 16. These sort of plants 
could not live in cold countries. 

(146) 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 147 

541. EXERCISE. 

(See 375 — 395, and 487.) 

1. I had my watch, but I bad forgotten to wind her, and she had 
run down. — 2. My sister and I will see ray father, for he will be 
home this evening. — 3. Mary or Henry will certainly lend me his 
book if he is not using it. — 4. Mr. A. or his lady will probably ask 
me to his house, for he was a friend of my father. — 5. The person 
which sent you ought to have known that it would be useless. — 

6. This is the young man of which I spoke. — 7. The company 
with whom he associates is far from being proper. — 8. I do not 
like the people whom I saw at his house. — 9. The man and the 
wagon which you see yonder are going to the mill. — 10. She is 
certainly the sweetest girl vrhom I have ever known. — 11. Who, 
who could do such an action, would dare to remain here? — 12. Lewis, 
he went to your house, but you were not at home. — 13. You may 
take whichever you please among my things. 

542. EXERCISE. 

(See 397—404.) 

1. You and her are not of the same opinion. — 2. She and me 
have promised to call upon her. — 3. Whom sent you for that 
book? Her. — 4. He can walk much faster than me. — 5. Are you 
not stronger than she? — 6. I am not near so strong as her. — 

7. Was sorry to hear that you have been sick. — 8. I have been 
without funds, but think that I will soon receive some. — 9. My 
brother and me have thought that you would be glad to see us. — 
10. He would have done it much better than them. 



543. EXERCISE. 

(See 128, 129, 406—409, and 417.) 

1. Have you seen my brother's horse ? — 2. I have not seen his'n, 

but I have seen yours. — 3. I saw a mouse with it's head caught in 

a trap. — 4. Jane and Lucy's dresses are alike. — 5, Charles and 

Henry's mother lives in Chestnut street. — 6. You mav buy them 

13^ 



148 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

at Peter, the grocer's. — 7. My uncle's house is at the other end of 
the bridge, on the river side. — 8. The table's leg is nearly broken. — 
9. He has scratched the varnish from his chair's back. 



544. EXERCISE. 

{See 67 — 77, and 411—416.) 

1. Is it possible that him, a old friend of my father, should treat 
me in this manner! — 2. Her who you sent for has come. — 3. I do 
not think that it was him who did it. — 4. Captain Smith is one oi 
my best and oldest friends. — 5. It was not me who told him to 
break it. — 6. The small and the large Miamis rivers. — 7. The two 
General Pierces. — 8. The three Miss Henries. — 9. Mr, Ash and 
the Miss Ashes. — 10. He has lost one of his front teeth. — 11. I 
have lost two of my handkerchiefs. — 12. Ten of his sheeps have 
been stolen. — 13. There was a long row of porticos. -— 14. She 
wants two loafs of bread. 



545. EXERCISE. 

(See 419 — 427.) 

1. Was they not with you yesterday morning. — 2. Her only 
hope was that he would return. — 3. A piece of black bread and an 
onion were his only food. — 4. Three hundred men were now the 
only remnants of the old guard, but they still marched proudly, 
preserving, even unto death, their martial and indomitable air. — ■ 
5. Marshal Ney conducted the retreat in the following manner : 
Each afternoon, at about five o'clock, he selected some commanding 
position, and stopped the advance of the Russians; his soldiers 
then, for a few hours, obtained such food and rest as were possible 
under such circumstances, find at ten o'clock he again resumed, 
under cover of the night, his retreat. — 6. In order to retard the 
advance of the Cossacks, powder and shells was placed in wagons, 
which it was found necessary to abandon, and a long lighted fuse 
attached. The Cossacks, observing the smoke, dared not approach 
until after the explosion. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 149 

546. EXERCISE. 

(See 419 — 427.) 

1. To be both liberal and prudent are a very rare quality. — 
2. To do good through true feelings of benevolence, and to do good 
in the hope of securing the applause of our acquaintance, are far 
from being equally meritorious. — 3. The mob was dispersed by a 
charge of cavalry, and quiet was restored to the city. — 4. The crew 
was fast asleep in their hammocks, when suddenly a violent commo- 
tion was felt; and before the bewildered and terrified sailors could 
find their way upon deck, the ship, with over forty human beings, 
was engulfed in the waves. — 5. My friend Henry, and his sister 
Louisa, has gone to New York. — 6. Every boy and every girl in 
the school were more or less guilty of that impropriety. — 7. Each 
boholar was rewarded according to his merits. — 8. You or he have 
certainly done it. 

547. EXERCISE. 

(See 419— 427.) 

1. Either my sisters or I was in the wrong. — 2. He and I are 
exactly of the same opinion. — 3. Neither he nor thou is capable of 
saying an untruth. — 4. Either you or I are to be blamed. — 5. The 
culprit was brought to trial, together with his accomplices, and 
were condemned to undergo five years of imprisonment in the State 
prison. — 6. Not one of my friends have called upon me since I re- 
turned from Europe. — 7. Each one of my children have been free 
to choose his own vocation. 

548. EXERCISE. 

(See 291, and 492, 493.) 

1. Has he spoke to you about it. — 2. We seen her going towards 
the river. — 3. She did it to please you.— 4. That awkward boy has 
broke my pitcher. — 5. Why do you say that I broke it? Because 
you have drank out of it. — 6. Look at that man, he has drove his 
horse against a tree. — 7. John has fell from his wagon, and has 
broke his leg. — 8. Have you been there tliis morning ? Yes, I been 



150 MISCELLANEOUS EXEKCISES. 

there, but I did not find him at home. — 9. Why do you not come 
near the fire? you look as if you were half froze. — 10. When was 
she took sick? She begun to feel unwell when she was in the 
stage ; the roads were very bad, and I fear that she was too much 
shook. 

549. EXERCISE. 

(See 291, and 494-496.) 

1. The steam-boat was blowed against the rocks, and its boiler 
bursted. — 2. Has he teared your coat? — 3. My father took me to 
a store, and told me to buy whatever I pleases ; so I choosed this 
book. — 4. Last week, as I was coming from town, the driver drove 
so fast, that I thought the carriage would be throwed over the pre- 
cipice. — 5. Mr. Dutton went to a gambling saloon, and on the first 
evening he winned over three hundred dollars ; but on the next day 
he went there again, and losed nearly seven hundred dollars, which 
was all he had. — 6. AVhen all the witnesses had been sweared, and 
had taken their places, the prisoner arose, and speaked in the fol- 
lowing manner. — 7. This gilk costed me only seventy-five cents a 
yard. — 8. Take these knives to the cutler, and get them grinded. — 
9. When I saw that she weeped so bitterly, I thinked that some- 
thing must be wrong. — 10. The ship striked against a rock and 
sinked in a few minutes. 



550. EXERCISE. 

(See 499 and 500.) 

Some of the following abbreviations being admissible in conversation, 
the exercise should be required both orally and in writing. 

1. Aren't you going to school ? No, I ain't, for my mother said 
that I might stay at home. — 2. I'll do it, if he'll pay me for it. — 
3. Hain't you his pencil? No, I haven't it. — 4. You'll promise 
me that he shan't know anything about it. — 5. Mayn't I go with 
them ? No ; for they are going to stay too late. — 6. 'Tisn't I who 
have done it ; 'tis he. — 7. Is it his intention to say anything about 
it? No, faint. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 151 

551. EXERCISE. 

(See 429—436, and 439 — 443.) 

1. The framing a Constitution was delayed until the Spring. — 

2. He dared to offend me, but I soon made him to repent of his 
imprudence. — 3. He bid me to stay with them. — 4. I requested 
him to tell it to us. — 5. You need not to hope induce me to do 
it. — 6. He was made feel that resistance would be vain. — -7. He 
was bid leave the room. — 8. Though he be my dearest friend I 
cannot spare him. — 9. He was reported to the teacher imme- 
diately. — 10. William can well swim. — 11. She seems good. — 
12. She dances pretty. — 13. Lucy looks very prettily this evening. — 

14. You must go to the grocer's, for I haven't got no more tea.— 

15. He would not lend me none of his books. — 16. I will go, if the 
weather is not unpleasant. 

552. EXERCISE. 

(See 445—450, 452—455, and 457—459.) 

1. He was lent a ball. — 2. Who did you send for the letter? — 

3. You and him are quite intimate. — 4. I saw thou yesterday. — 
5. Did thee see me ? — 6. The man who you sent for has come. — 
7. I hope thee will succeed. — 8. Who did you speak to ? — 9. What 
are you thinking of? — 10. She was visited by, and explained it to 
her friend. — 11. She sent for, and had a consultation with, Dr. B. — 
12. He was given a handsome book by his mother. — 13. The man 
who you have engaged to put the coal in the cellar is waiting for 
you. — 14. Who were you with? I was with my cousin. — 15. She 
was feeding, when you wanted her, the hogs. — 16. He was riding, 
when we saw him, with his sister. 

553. EXERCISE. 

(See 501—531.) 

1. That beats all that he had ever done before. — 2. Be you going 
to town this morning? — 3. When do you expect to go? Well, I 
reckon I will be ready by the middle of next week. — 4. He fired a 
big stone at me, and was like to have struck me on the head. — 



152 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

5. How is your brother? Not much better; lie has been very bad 
all night. — 6. Since you have got to do it, you had better set to 
work, and do it at once. — 7. ile made me so mad that I felt like 
insulting him. — 8. I guess you had better not let on that you know 
anything about it. 

554. EXERCISE. 

(See 501—531.) 

1. If you don't stop firing stones I will lick you. — 2. He made a 
heap of money, but he soon lost it. — 3. He thinks that if he does 
like you he will succeed. — 4. Did you learn him how to play that 
game? — 5. Which of the two armies was whipped? — 6. By whom 
were you attackted? — 7. You seem to be mighty particular. — 8, I 
can never tell them three brothers apart. — 9. Don't take on,, he 
won't be so bad when he has sleeped a little while. — 10. She is 
dreadful handsome, but I do not like her. — 11. You have quite a 
farm. — 12. That pudding is right good. — 13. Set down, you must 
be tired. — 14. How are you ? I am not right well ; I think I will 
lay down and take a little sleep, — 15. Lie that child in his cradle. 
— 16. He is very badly in love with her. 



555. GENERAL EXERCISE IN REVIEW. 

1. I didn't see none. — 2. I done it, but you musn't let on that 
you know it. — 3. Did you say that it was me who had done it. — 
4. I losed my knife yesterday morning. -r-5. I am very happy to 
hear that you are quite recovered. — 6. Whom told her that it was 
him? Not me. — 7. It wasn't us who said anything about it. — 

8. Him who said so must have knowed very little about it. — 

9. Did you not see that handsome white lady's shawl? — 10. Wil- 
liam, he said that he would be sure to be back again this evening. — 
11. None of his beautiful furniture were saved from the fire. — 12. A 
heap of ruins were all that remained of that magnificent city. — 
13. John, William, and Henry's caps were bought at the same 
store. — 14. On the death of Richard there were two claimants of 
the English throne ; John, who took immediate possession, and 
Arthur of Brittany, his nephew, son of Geofi'rey Plantagenet, an 



MISCELLANEOUS EXEKCISES. 153 

« 
elder brother; he defeated the forces of Arthur, &c. — 15. The wise 

sages of antiquity. — 16. She is excellent good woman. — 17. Be 
quick, and be sure that you don't be long. — 18. Lie that book on 
the table, and come quick and help me, or these plates will sure 
be broke. — 19. Lewis is a too advanced boy for so young a boy 
that he is. — 20. She certainly is the most amiablest lady in this 
village. — 21. Them apples must be ripe. — ^22. His child was two 
month old yesterday. — 23. Neither you or she will be invited to 
that party. — 24. One of the boys were here. — 25. He divided it 
between him and I. — 26. To be charged with crime were worse 
than death. — 27. Whom did I say should read next? — 28. A hour 
had passed. — 29. .You must speak louder.^— 30. "The war is 
ended,'' says he, "and the regiment is ordered home." — 31. I 
dared him to do it. — 32. When was you there? — 33. I seen him 
done it. — 34. It was me. — 35. You have drank all the water in the 
glass. — 36. I laid down, but resteth not. — 37. He dared not take 
the leap, although the stream was not more than six foot wide. — 
38. It was him that I invited to go. — 39. It was tore when I got 
it. — 40. I begun it, and intended to have finished it before you 
come. — 41. They have went to England. — 42. The President, he 
was elected by an overwhelming majority. — 43. Him who you seek 
is in the garden. — 44. It is too common with mankind to be en- 
grossed and overcome totally by present events. — 45. The com- 
mittee "was divided in its opinion, but finally handed in their ver- 
dict. — 46. It was wrote. — 47. He who I punished is in the class- 
room. — 48. What went ye out for to see? — 49. Keal wealth is 
knowledge and wisdom. — 50. The lawyers, they always depend a 
great deal on the powers of oratory. — 51. A great many of the 
discoveries of European nations have been made by the Venetians. — 

52. The country people are always wishing to come and live in 
town, and the city people are always longing for the country. — 

53. I waited for a whole hour, but he did not return. — 54. Mary 
bought five pound of beef for to-morrow's dinner. — 55. The prince's 
army was defeated, and was compelled 'to retreat, and to make a 
retrograde movement, which proved very beneficial and advan- 
tageous to the enemy. — 56. These sort of people think that they 
can do anything with impunity. — 57. She is the most intelligentest 
little girl in the school. — 58. Your table is not much larger than 



154 MISCELLANEOUS EXEKCISES. 

mine. — 59. I know that she sings and plays good, but I do not 
think that she dresses becoming or tasteful. — 60. Where did you 
lind them nuts? — 61. He didn't say nothing about it. — 62. Them 
who told you that it was us must have been mistaken. — 63. My 
wife and me have resolved to leave this place. — 64. Who have you 
sent them to ? — 65. It was him who told it to us. — 66. The woman 
which was sick. — 67. The cook, she says that dinner will soon be 
ready. — 68. Was you with me when I received that letter? — 
^9. The intensity of the cold, and not the fear of being surrounded 
by the enemy, were the cause of Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. — 
70. The whole city, with all the wealth it contained, was destroyed, 
— 71. I seen him yesterday. — 72. She begun to regret having done 
it. — 73. He run a race with us. — 74. The tree was blowed down 
by the wind. — 75. I am right tired, and w^ill go and lay down. — 
76. Our father-in-laws are determined to insult us. — 77. The news 
from the provinces are remarkable warlike ; they consist in govern- 
ment despatches and letters. — 78. Everyone have been here, but 
has now left. — 79. I wished to have seen him, but he had laid 
down, — 80. I set and waited, but soon seen it was useless, — 81. Lord 
Raglan, with all his staff, was exposed to the fire of the Russian 
batteries. — 82. It is laying on the table. — 83. I bid you to bring it 
to me. — 84. Lie it down, and touch it if you dare. — 85. I seen her 
to-day, and she bid me to tell you that she was learning fast. — 
86. When I come in they was all went home. — 87. Neither they 
nor I are sufficient strong to do it. — 88. Neither he or I is the per- 
son you are seeking. — 89. He and I studied together, but they did 
not graduate at the same time, — 90. Sister, divide it between him 
and I, and reserve a piece for yourselve. — 91. What is it thou 
wants, and what shalt I do for thou ? — 92. Who have I to depend 
on but thee? — 93. Broke is the goblet, and wasted the wine. — 

94. He bursted open the door, and entered unceremonious. — 

95. The bride or the bridegroom will invite me to their wedding. — 

96. He or his partner will assist me, for they were intimate friends 
of my father's. — 97. He keeped my book so long that I have not 
been able to study my lesson. — 98, After he had stole the money 
he leaved the country. — 99, Aren't you glad that he is going? — 
100. He has taken my letter, and wont give it to me back again. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

What is Orthography ? 

556. Orthography is that part of grammar which treats 
of letters, of their sounds, and of their combinations into 
syllables and words. 

What is a letter ? 

557. A letter is a character used in writing or printing, 
to represent an elementary sound. 

How many letters are there in the English language ? 

558. The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters, 
namely : 



Roman. 


Italic. 


Old English. 


A a. 


A 


a. 


^ a. 


B b. 


B 


b. 


38 b. 


C c. 





c. 


® c. 


D d. 


D 


d. 


m ti. 


E e. 


E 


e. 


2S e. 


F f. 


F 


/. 


jf t 


^ g. 


G 


9- 


®f fl. 


H h. 


H 


Ji. 


m % 


I i. 


I 


i. 


K f. 


J J. 


J 


3- 


3 r. 


K k. 


K 


k. 


n fe. 


L 1. 


L 


I. 


a I 


M m. 


M 


m. 


|K m. 


N n. 


N 


n. 


W n. 


0. 





0. 


© 0. 


14 




f 


(155) 



156 





ORTHOGRAPHY. 




floman. 


Italic. 


Old English. 


P P 


P p. 


33 5. 


Q q. 


Q 2. 


O. (J. 


R r. 


R r. 


IS; t. 


S s. 


S s. 


S u. 


T t. 


T t. 


^ t 


U u. 


U u. 


sa u. 


V V. 


V V. 


V b. 


W w. 


W w. 


a^ tD. 


X X. 


X X. 


X t:. 


Y y. 


y y- 


^ ». 


Z z. 


Z z. 


^ ?. 



How are letters divided ? 

559. Letters are divided into two classes ; vowels and 
consonants. 

What is a vowel ? 

560. A vowel is a letter which represents a perfect 
sound, and which can be uttered without the assistance 
of any other letter ; as, a, o. u. 

What is a consonant ? 

561. A consonant is a letter which does not of itself 
represent a perfect sound, but which is added to vowels 
to indicate the way in which they should be uttered, 
whether it be through palatial, lingual, dental, labial, nasal, 
or guttural instrumentality. 

VOWELS. 

Give the vowels. 

562. The vowels are a, e, ^, o, u^ and sometimes w 
and y. 

What is a diphthong ? 

563. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 157 

sound; diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and im- 
proper. 

What is the difference between a proper and an improper diphthong ? 

564. A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels 
are sounded ; as, oi in loin. An improper diphthong is 
one in which only one vowel is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

How many diphthongs are there in the English language ? 

565. There are but two proper diphthongs : oi and ou. 
The improper are numerous, but as they have the sound 
of single vowels, they need not be enumerated. 

What is a triphthong ? 

566. A triphthong is the unioti of three vowels in one 
sound. It is proper when the three vowels are sounded ; 
as, uoy in huoy ; and improper when one or two of the 
vowels are silent, as in adieu. 

567. Sounds of the Vowels. 

What are the simple sounds of a, of e, of i, of o, of u ? 
A has five sounds, as in fare, fate, fat, far, fall. 
E has two sounds, as in me, met. 
I has two sounds, as in pine, pin. 
has four sounds, as in no, not, nor, move. 
U has three sounds, as in mule, tub, hull. 

When w and y are vowels, they have exactly the same sound as 
u and i would have in the same situation ; as, crew, slew, system, 
justify. 

Have the vowels any other sounds than those already mentioned ? 

568. Besides the simple sounds enumerated, the vowels 
admit of the following variations of sound : 

A has a sound intermediate between the a in that, and the a in 
father; as in grass. It also has the sound of o short, as in what; 
and that of e short, as in many. 



158 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

E has sometimes the sound of u, as in fern, alert. It also has 
the sound of a in care, as in there, cohere; and that of short i, as in 
England. 

I has sometimes the sound of long e, as in macMne, profile; and 
the sound of e in mercy, as in hird, fir, afilrm; and the consonant 
sound of y, as in alien, union. 

has sometimes: 1st. The sound of e in fern, as in world. 
2d. The sound of short i, as in women. 3d. The sound of short u, 
as in done, son. 4th. The sounJfef u in full, as in wolf. 

Chas sometimes the sound of short e, as in hury; and the sound 
of short i, as in busy. 

What are the sounds of the diphthongs, oi, oy, ou, ow ? 

569. Oi and oy have but one sound, as in loin. On and 
ow have but one sound, as in loud. 



CONSONANTS. 

Give the consonants. 

570. The consonants are : B, e, c?, /, g^ h, j", Jc, I, m, 

riy p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and sometimes w and y. 

Into what two classes are consonants divided ? 

571. Consonants are divided into mutes and semi- 
vowels. 

Name the mutes. 

572. The mutes are p, 5, d, t, k, and e and g hard. 

Name the semi- vowels. 

573. The semi-vowels are /, I, m, n, r, s, v, Xy y, and c 

and g soft. 

What is the difference between the mutes and semi-vowels ? 

574. In uttering the mutes, the voice is stopped short, 
as in ap, ad, at; while in uttering the semi-vowete, the 
voice may be prolonged, as in af, aly am. 



orthography. 159 

Sounds of the Consonants. 

What is the sound of the letter b ? 

575. B has but one sound, as in haher^ number^ rhu- 
harh; and is sometimes silent, as in debtor^ plumb. 

What are the sounds of c 9 

570. has two sounds : one hard like k, as in cat, cold, 
cure, &c. ; the other soft like s, as in centre, civil, mercy, 
&c. 

Q is hard before a, o, u, before a consonant, and at the 
end of a syllable ; as in cardinal, craft, victim, &c. 

is soft before e, i, y. Before e, i, y, followed by an- 
other vowel, c has the sound of sh, as in ocean. 

Ch has the sound of tsJi in words purely English, as in 
chin; but in words derived from the French, it has the 
sound of sh, as in chaise ; in words derived from the He- 
brew, Greek, and other ancient languages, it has the sound 
oi h, as in chorus, Ohaldee. 

Ch in arch, before a consonant, has the sound of tsh, 
as in Archbishop; but when arch comes before a vowel, 
it has sometimes the sound of h, as in arch-enemy, arch- 
angel. 

What is the sound of d ? 

577. I) is sounded as in death, bandage ; except at the 
end of words, when it sometimes has the sound of t, as in 
stuffed, tripped, &c. 

What is the sound of ff 

578. F is sounded as in from, fancy, &c. In the word 
of it has the sound of v. 

14* 



160 ORTHOGRAiPHY. 

What are the sounds of g ? 

579. Gr has two sounds : one hard, as in ga^/, goy &c. ; 
the other soft, as in gem, giant. 

Gr is hard before a, o, u, before a consonant, and at 
the end of a syllable ; and is generally soft before e, ^, g. 

Before n, g is frequently mute, as in gnash; gn has a 
peculiar sound, as in 7'ing. 

Gh, at the beginning of a word, has the sound of the 
hard g, as in ghost; in the middle, and sometimes at the 
end of a word, it is quite silent, as in right, plough, &c. 

What is the sound of h ? 

580. H has but one sound, as in hat, horse; it is often 
silent, as in hour. 

What is the sound of _; ? 

581. J has the same sound as g soft; except in halle- 
lujah, where it has the sound of y. 

What is the sound of A; ? 

582. K has the sound of c hard, as in king, heep ; but 
is always silent before n, as in knife, knocker, &c. 

What is the sound of Z? 

583. L has always a soft liquid sound, as in love, 
billows ; it is sometimes silent, as in half, talk, &c. 

What is the sound of m .^ 

584. M has but one sound, as in map, murmur, &c. 

What are the sounds of n ? 

585. N has two sounds : one pure, as in man, net, 
jiohle, &c. ; and the other ringing, as in hank, thank, &c. 
iV is silent when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by m, 
as in hymn. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 161 

What is the sound of p f 

586. P has but one sound, as in pistol, pill; except in 
cup-board, where it has the sound of b. P is sometimes 
silent ; as in psalm, Ptolemy, &c. 

Ph has generally the sound of /; as in philosophy, 
Philip, &c. In nephew, Stephen, kc, ph has the sound 
of V. 

What is the sound of q ? 

587. Q has the sound of k, and is always followed by w; 
as in queen, conquer, &c. 

What are the sounds of r? 

588. R has two sounds : one rough, as in Rome, river, 
&c. ; and the other soft, as in bar, far, &c. 

What are the sounds of s ? 

589. S, at the beginning, and in the body of a word, 
when it is not between two vowels, has a hissing sound ; 
as in sister, blessing, &c. But at the end of a word, and 
when it is between vowels, it has the sound of z; as in 
was, trees, rosy, amuse, &c. S has sometimes the sound 
of sh, as in sugar; sometimes of zh, as in pleasure: and 
is sometimes silent, as in island, viscount, &c. 

What are the sounds of t ? 

590. T generally sounds, as in time. Before u, when 
the accent precedes, it sounds like tch: as in nature, tor- 
ture, &c. Ti, before a vowel, has the sound of sh : as in 
constitution. 

Th has two sounds: one soft, as in thus, father: and 
the other sharp, as in thing, thought, &c. 

What is the sound of v f 

591. F'has but one sound, as in vain. 



162 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

What is the sound of w ? 

592. W has nearly the sound of oo, as in water. W is 
always silent before r, as in wrozig, wry : and frequently 
in other instances. Before A, w k pronounced as if it 
were after it, as in whale. 

What are the sounds of a;^ 

593. -X" has generally the sound of gs, as in exert, exist, 
&c. When x ends an accented syllable, it has the sound 
ks: as in exit, exercise, &c. At the beginning of proper 
names of Greek origin, x has the sound of z : as Xenophon, 
Xerxes, &c. 

What is the sound of y ? 

594. Y, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee : 
as in Yes, York. 

What is the sound of z ? 

595. Z generally sounds as in zeal. 



SYLLABLES. 

What is a syllable ? 

596. A syllable is a sound pronounced by a single im- 
pulse of the voice ; as, hat, hat-ter. 

What is a monosyllable, a dissyllable, a trisyllable, a polysyllable ? 

597. A word of but one syllable is called a monosylla- 
ble ; of two syllables, a dissyllable ; of three syllables, a 
trisyllable ; and of four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 163 

DERIVATION OF .WORDS* 

What is a primitive word ? 

598. A primitive or radical word is one which is not 
derived from any other word ; as, cloud, joy. 

What is a derivative word ? 

599. A derivative word is one which is formed by add- 
ing some letter or syllable to a primitive word to modify 
its meaning ; as, cloudy^ joyless. 

What is a compound word ? 

600. A compound word is one formed by uniting two 
or more entire words ; as, thunder-cloud, landlord. 

PREFIXES. 

What is a prefix ? 

601. A prefix is that part of a derivative word which 
is placed before the primitive ; as, entomb, unwise. 

From what languages are the prefixes derived ? 

602. The prefixes are principally derived from the 
Saxon, the Latin, and the Greek. 

603. Prefixes of Saxon Origin. 

Prefix. Signification. Example. 

A On or in J.board, aground. 

Be About, before, near, on, over Bestir, 6espeak, besprinkle. 

For Against, not, from jPorbid. 

* The derivation of words seems to belong both to etymology and 
orthography. It belongs to the former, inasmuch as it refers to the classi- 
fication and application of words ; and to the latter, inasmuch as it refers 
to the combination of letters and syllables into words. For the sake of 
convenience, we will treat of this subject in the present chapter. 



164 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Prefix. Signification. Example. 

Fore Before ForeioW., ybrestall. 

Mis Defect, wrong ifi^use, wistake. 

Over Above, beyond Overdo, overcome. 

Out. ........ Beyond, more Outrun, outdo. 

Un Not CTncommon. 

Under Bejieath Undergo. 

Up Above, up, subversion .... C^hold, w^set. 

With Against, from Withhold, withdTa.w. 

604. Prefixes of Latin Origin. 

Prefix. Signification. Example. 

A, ab, aba . . . From, away -46stract. 

*Ad To, at, towards Ad]o\n, approach. 

Ante Before J^n^edate. 

Bene Good, well benevolent. 

Bis or bi ... . Twice, two ^{ped. 

Circum Around, about Circumnavigate. 

Cis On this side Ci^^alpine. 

■*Con Together, with Convoke. 

Contra Against Contradict. 

De From, down Detract, (dethrone. 

■^Dis, di Asunder Disjoint, (distract. 

*E (ex) Out of, from ^«pel, evacuate. 

Equi Equal ^gm'distant. 

Extra Beyond Extraordinary. 

*In In, into, not Jnactive, inconclusive. 

Inter Between Intervene. 

Intro In, within Jn^roduce. 

Juxta Near Jwxi^aposition. 

Manu With the hand Manuscript. 

I Multi Many Multitude. 

\ 

* In order to render the sound more agreeable, ad, and several other 
prefixes, change or omit their final letters, so as to harmonise with the 
first letter of the primitive word to which they are joined. Those subject 
to such changes are marked with an asterisk. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 165 

Prefix. Signification. Example. 

Non Not JVb7iconformist. 

*0b Against Obstacle. 

Omni All Omnipotent. * 

Per Thoroughly, by Pei-fect. 

Post After Postscript. 

Pre Before Precede. 

Pro For, forth, forwards Pronoun, progress, 

Preter Past, beyond Preternatural. 

*Ke Back, again Pefit, resume. 

Retro Backwards Pei^rograde. 

Se Apart, without iS'elect. 

Sine Without >S'mecure. 

*Sub Under ^S'wftscribe. 

Super Over, beyond Supercargo, 

Trans Over, change transplant. 

Uni One CTniform. 



605. Prefixes of Greek Origin. • 

Prefix. Signification. Example. 

A or an Without Anonymous. 

Amphi Both, double ^7M;p^ttheatre. 

Ana Through, up J.natomy. 

Anti Against AntidioiQ. 

Apo, ap From ^^ogee. 

Dia Through Diameter. 

Epi Upon ^ttaph. 

Hyper Over, above jS?/percritical. 

Hypo Under Hypocrite. 

Meta Change ilfe^amorphosis. 

Mono One, single il/onosyllable. 

Para Beyond, against Paradox. 

Peri Around Peristyle. 

Poly Many, several Polygamy. 

Semi, hemi . . Half ^Semicircle, hemisphere. 

*Syn Together, with Synod, sympathy. 



166 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



What is a suffix ? 

606. A suffix is that part of a derivative word which 
is placed after the primitive ; as, Life-Zess, ski\-ful 



607. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES 



Suffix. 

Ant, ar, ard, ary, 
eer, er, ee, ent, 
ist, ite, ian, ive, 
or, ner, ster, yer, 
zen 

Age, acy, ance, ancy, 
al, ade, dom, ency, 
ence, ety, hood, 
ion, ism, ice, ment, 
mony, ness, ry, 
ship, ^ th, ude, 
(tude),ty, ure, ric. 

Ac, al, an, ar, ary, 
ate, en, ic, ile, ine, 
ory, ose, ful, cy, y. 

Ate, en, fy, ish, ise, 
ize 

Cle, cule, kin, let, 
ling, ock 



Signification. 



' The person who.. 



The act or state of 
being 



Pertaining to or 
abounding in ... . 



To cause, to make . 



Small, minute 



Tve.. . 
Ward 

Less.. 



L-s 

I^sh 

[.ike 

^y 

Able or ible 



Tending to. 
Towards . . . 
Without . . . 
Science of. . 
Somewhat.. 
Resembling 
In manner . 
Capable of . 



Example. 
Guardian, Ameri- 
can, beggar, ser- 
vant, baker, ad- 
versary, mortga- 
gee, president, 
lawyer, citizen. 
Privacy, justice, 
truth, bondage, 
repentance, girl- 
hood, scholarship, 
despotism, king- 
dom, novelty, re- 
fusal, bishopric. 
Autumnal, moun- 
tainous, republi- 
can, consular, af- 
fectionate, infan- 
tile. 
J Alienate, justify, 
\ brighten, civilize. 

{Animalcula, eaglet, 
lambkin, duck- 
ling, hillock. 
. Delusive. 
. Southward. 
. Joyless. 
. Mathematics. 
. Whitish. 
. Warlike. 
. Lively. 
. Loveable. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 167 

608. EXERCISE ON THE PREFIXES. 

Add to the following- roots all the prefixes which may appropriately 
be joined to them, and tell the meaning- of the words so formed : 

Jure [to swear), claim [to call, to speak), cede [to yield, to move), 
cept [to take), duce {to lead, to draw), vert [to turn), flux [to fioio), 
grass [to go), port [to carry), vention [act of coming or going), 
sure, join, volve [to 7^oU, to turn), bine [to Join), pose [to set, to lay), 
strain [to bind), still [to drop), script [a writing), serve [to keep, to 
hold), form [to make), suade [to urge), pel [to drive), verse [to 
turn). 

609. EXERCISE ON THE SUFFIXES. 

Add to the following roots all the suffixes which may appropriately be 
joined to them, and tell the meaning- of the words so formed : 

Equal, mix, depart, firm, quiet, child, spirit, law, system, 
charge, social, figure, animate, cloud, value, duke, lumin [UgJit), 
profess, serve, print, grand. 



SPELLING. 

What is spelling ? 

610. Spelling is the art of combining letters into syl- 
labus and words. 

What are the principal rules for spelling ? 

Rule I. 

611. Monosyllables ending in/, ?, or 5, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, Muff^ hell, 
miss, &c. 

Exceptions. — If, of, as, gas, has, was, is, Ms, this, 
pus, us, and thus. 
15 



168 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

612. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following: 

1. He can not spel halff so wel as his sister. — 2. You must not 
go out while the gras is wet. — 3. He escaped, but many of the 
officers of his staf were killed. — 4. After the fal of the Roman 
empire ike world seemed to be plunged in hopeless barbarism. 

Rule II. 

618. Words ending in any other consonant than /, ?, 
or s, do not double the final letter ; as, Hat, mad, up^ 
pin, &c. 

Exceptions. — Add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, hunn, err, 
burr, purr, butt, buzz, and fuzz. 

614. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. Lombardy embraced most of the great plain of northern 
Italy. — 2. Cicero was putt to death by order of Antony. — 3. Bo- 
rodino is a smal village about seventy miles south-west from Mos- 
cow. — 4. The military events of 1795 were of much les importance 
than those of the preceding year. — 5. It was nearly dark, and they 
hadd tenn miles to walk before reaching the in. — 6. We had boiled 
egs for breakfast. — 7. The first carrs were dashed to pieces. 



Rule III. 

615. When words ending in i/ assume an additional 
letter or syllable, the ?/ is generally changed into ^, if it 
be preceded by a consonant; as, Ra'ppy, happier, Jiap- 
piest, happily, happiness; spy, spies; I carry, thou car- 
riest, he carries; carrier, &c. 

Exceptions. — 1st. The «/ is retained . before ing ; as, 



ORTHOaRAPHY. 169 

Carryingy spying, &c. ; 2d. The y is retained if it be 
preceded by a vowel ; as, Boy, boyish, boyhood; joy, joy- 
less, joyful, &c. Except lay, ipay, say, which make laid, 
paidy said; and day, which makes daily. 

616. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. The ship was too heavyly laden. — 2. Formidable conspiracys 
existed in Ireland. — 3. He remained joiless and alone. — 4. The 
battle of Borodino was one of the bloodyest in the war. — 5. I payd 
three dollars for the draiage of your luggage. — 6. He resumed his 
march with the earlyest dawn of day. — 7. I only mett two ladies 
and three boys. 



Rule IV. 

617. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending with a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, double that consonant when they assume 
another syllable beginning with a vowel; as, Wit, witty; 
thin, thinnish; begin, beginner, &c. 

But if a diphthong precede, or the accent be not on 
the last syllable, the consonant remains single ; as. Toil, 
toiling ; travel, traveling ; maid, maiden, &c. 

618. EXERCISE. 

Correct the follov/ing : 

1. They were attacked by robers, and striped of all they had. — 
2. He was taken prisonner by the Russians. — 3. We were admited 
into the presence of the emperor. — 4. Refering to that unfortun- 
nate affair, he said : " I had planed no such war, and abhored the 
men who drove me to it against my will." — 5. The shiping in the 
port of New York, &c. — 6. There wass matting in the hall and 
carpet in the parlor. 



170l orthography. 

EULE V. 



Words ending in II drop an I before less or ly ; 
as, Full, fully ; skill, skilless, &c. One I is also gene- 
rally dropped before ness, and /it/, or when a simple word 
ending in II is joined to another word ;* as, Full, fulness; 
skill, skilful; all, already ; will, wilful, &c. 

Words ending in any other letter than II, generally 
preserve the letter double before less, ly, ness, or ful, or 
on being compounded ; as, Qareless, carelessness, care- 
lessly ; stiff, stiffness, stiffly ; success, successful; glass, 
glass-house ; grass, grasshopper, &c. 

620. EXERCISE. . 

Correct the following : 

1. He is so willful that nothing can induce him to make any 
change in his projects. — 2. I am fuly determined to do it. — 3. She 
is sometimes so odly dressed that everybody laughs at her. — 4. The 
king of Saxony remainned faithfult to Napoleon untill the last 
moment. — 5. I allways like to see children enjoy themselves. — 
6. He threw a handfull of sand in my face. — 7. He willfuly 
resigned his crown. 

Rule VI. 

621. If ness, less, ly,ful, or ment, be added to words 
ending in silent e, the e is generally retained ; as. Pale, 
paleness; peace, peaceless, peaceful; excite, excite- 
ment, &c. 

Exceptions. — Duly, truly, awful, judgment, abridg- 
ment, aeknoiuledgment, and a few others. 

* According to some authors, the U should be preserved before ness 
and /wZ, and in compound words, whenever the accent is upon the syllable 
to which the U belongs ; as, Fulfill^ willful^ recall^ &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 171 

622. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. He has made some changes in his arrangments. — 2. The car- 
nage was truely aweful. — 3. Any infringment of this rule will be 
severely punished. — 4. Although he is perfectly harmless, he has 
made himself hatful to all who know him. — 5. You tire me with 
that ceasless talk and constant restlesness. 



Rule VII. 

623. If ahle^ ihle, mg, or ish, be added to words ending 
in silent e, the e is generally dropped; as, Blame, hlama- 
hle ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible ; lodge, lodging ; face, 
facing ; slave, slavish ; jprude, prudish, &c. 

Exception. — If the e be preceded hjcovg soft, it is 
retained before able; as, Change, changeable; feace, 
peaceable, &c. 

624. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. His ruleing passion was ambition. — 2. Judgeing from what 
he says, his wife must have been a very loveable woman. — 3. She 
is a lovely girl. — 4. Forceing his way through the lines of the 
enemy, he succeeded in rejoining the army. — 5. His horse is of a 
whiteish color. 

625. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Correct the folloAving : 

1. At the head of the confederacy of the Franks was Charles 
Martel, who, collecting his forces, mett Abdelrahman on the plains 
off Poitiers, and, after six days' skirmishing, engaged on the 
seventh in that fearfull battle that was to decide the fate of Eu- 
rope. In the light skirmishing the archers of the East maintained 
the advantage ; but in the close onset of the deadly strife, the Ger- 
15^ 



172 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

man auxiliaries of Charles, graspeing their ponderous swords with 
" stout hearts and iron hands/' stood to the shock like wals of 
stone, and beat down the light-armed Arabs with terrific slaughter. 
Abdelrahman and three hundred and seventy-five thousand of his 
followers were slain. The Arabs never resumed the conquest of 
Gaul, and Europe to this day owes its civil and religious freedom 
to the victory gained over the Saracens before Poitiers, by Charles, 
the Hammer, which shattered the Saracen forces. — 2. Spain was 
then layed waste by the English, who termed themselves the allj^es 
of that unfortunate country. — 3. Falling suddenly upon the enemy, 
the Spartans penetrated to the very centi-e of the Persian host, 
slaiing two brothers of Xerxes, &c. — 4. The power of Carthage 
fel before that of Rome. — 5. Ad not falsehood to your other sinns. 
— 6. They are allways busyly engaged. — 7. They were payd, and 
joifuUy returned home. — 8. In the fullness of his joy, the natural 
stifness of his character was relaxed. — 9. His palness frightened 
me ; he was in such a state of nervous excitment that I feared he 
•would lose his reason, — 10. He is of Swedeish origin. — 11. It was 
twelve o'clock when I reached my lodgeings. — 12. The following 
letter from General Moreau was addressed to his wife a few hours 
before his death: "My dearest — At the battle of Dresden, three 
^ lays ago, I had both my legs carryed ofi" by a cannon bal. That 
rascal Bonaparte is always fortunate. They have performed the 
amputation as wel as possible. Though the army has made a 
retrograde movment, it is by no means a reverse, but of design to 
draw nearer to General Blucher. Excuse my scrawl. I love and 
embrace you with ray whole heart." — 13. The Saxons were a 
people ofi" Germany, whose original seat appears to have been on 
the neck of the Cimbric peninsula; they were a nation of fisher- 
men and pirates, and, after having extended their depredations to 
the coasts of Britain and Gaul, they were joined by numerous 
auxiliaries from the shores of the Baltic, who gradualy incorpo- 
rated themselves with the Saxons. In the early part of the fifth 
century almost al these barbarians were converted to Christianity, 
and halff a century later they hadd obtained a permanent estab- 
lishment in Britain. — 14. The conspirators rusbed upon hira, 
and Cfiesar fel, pierced with twenty-three wounds. 



PUNCTUATION. 173 

PUNCTUATION. 

What is punctuation ? 

626. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written com- 
position into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points 
or stops, in order to mark the different pauses which the 
sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

What are the principal points, or marks ? 

627. The principal points are : 

The comma ( , ), which denotes the shortest pause. 

The semicolon ( ;), which denotes a pause double that 
of the comma. 

The colon ( : ), which denotes a pause double that of 
the semicolon. 

The period ( . ), which denotes a pause double that of 
the colon. 

The dash ( — ), which denotes an unexpected pause, 
of variable length. 

The note of interrogation (?), which denotes a question. 

The note of exclamation (!), which denotes strong or 
sudden emotion. 



THE COMMA. 

What is the rule for the comma ? 

628. The comma is generally used to divide those parts 
of a sentence which, though closely connected in sense 
and construction, require a pause between them ; as, 
^'' He gave the hiss of friendship^ and it proved the token 
of treachery.'' 



174 PUNCTUATION. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

What remark is made with respect to the punctuation of simple sen- 
tences ? 

629. In general, no points are requisite between the 
words of which a simple sentence consists ; as, Writing 
was first exhibited on tables of stone. 

Mention the principal exceptions to the above rule. 

630. If the sentence be a long one, and the nominative 
case be accompanied by adjuncts, a comma may be placed 
before the verb ; as, " To be totally indifferent to praise 
or censure^ is a real defect of character." 

631. If a clause, not necessary to the sense or con- 
struction, be inserted in the body of a sentence, by way 
of explanation or amplification, that clause should have a 
comma before and after it ; as, I remember, with grati- 
tude, his goodness to me. 

In what other instances are commas required ? 

632. In most compound sentences there is frequent 
occasion for commas. The following are the most useful 
rules on the use of the comma, in compound sentences. 

633. If two or more nouns occur in the same construc- 
tion, they should be separated by commas ; as, Mg trunk, 
cane, umbrella, and carpet-bag, were lost. 

634. If two or more adjectives belong to the same 
noun, they should be separated by commas ; as. She is a 
gentle, sensible, religious, and well-educated woman. 

635. If two or more verbs or participles have the same 
nominative, and immediately follow one another, they 
should be separated by commas ; as. In a letter we mag 



PUNCTUATION. 175 

advise, exliort, comfort, request, and discuss. She was 
loved, esteemed, and respected, 

636. If two or more adverbs belong to the same word, 
they should be separated by commas ; as. She spoke 
gently, modestly, persuasively, and was listened to with 
attention. 

637. If several nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or 
adverbs, be closely connected by conjunctions, no comma 
is needed ; as. Your father and mother are here. She is 
good and amiable. I talked and wrote to him. She was 
much admired and flattered. He speaks correctly and 
distinctly. t 

688. If the parts connected be long, a comma should 
be inserted, though the conjunction be expressed ; as, 
Intemperance destroys the strength of the hody, and. the 
vigor of the mind. 



THE SEMICOLON. 

What is the rule for the semicolon ? 

639. The semicolon is generally used to divide a com- 
pound sentence into two or more parts, not so closely 
connected as those which are separated by a comma ; as, 
The barbarities of Constantine revived the old spirit of 
Polish freedom and nationality ; and the successful ex- 
amples of France and Belgium roused the Poles to 
action. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
What remarks are made with respect to semicolons ? 

640. Several short and complete sentences, depending 



176 PUNCTUATION. 

on the same clause, should be separated by semicolons ; 
as, Lufhers labors were gigantic; his siyieerity unim- 
peached; Ms piety enlighteried ; his zeal unquenchable. 

641. If a clause be added to a complete sentence, by 
way of inference, explanation, or example, and the two 
are connected by a conjunction, a semicolon should be 
placed between them ; as, Be sure you dont forget it; 
for we shall need it. 

642. Where such words as thus, as, &c., are used to 
introduce an example, a semicolon generally separates 
those words from the previous sentence ; as, A noun is a 
word used to represent persons, places, or things; as, 
Charles, man, &c. 



THE COLON. 

What is the rule for the colon ? 

648. The colon is generally used to divide a sentence 
into two or more parts, less connected than those which 
are separated by a semicolon, but not so independent as 
separate, distinct sentences ; as. Soon after the defection 
of the Moors of Spain, an independent Saracen monarchy 
had arisen in Africa proper : this was followed hy the ■ 
estahlishment of new dynasties in Egypt, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

What remarks are made with respect to colons ? 

644. A colon should be used when several semicolons 
have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in 
order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment ; 



PUNCTUATION. 177 

as, "-A divine Legislator, uttering Ms voice from heaven; 
an almighty Crovernor, stretching forth his arms to punish 
or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared here- 
after for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath 
awaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which 
overawe the world, which support integrity, and check 
guilt, '' ^ 

645. The colon is used when an example is introduced, 
without introducing such words as thus, as, kc, or before 
an enumeration ; as, Words are divided into nine classes : 
the article, noun, adjective, &c. 

646. A colon is used when a quotation is introduced ; 
as, Milton says, speaking of Eves eating the forbidden 
fruit : So saying, her rash hand, in evil hour, 

Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate. 

THE PERIOD. 

What is the rule for the period ? 

647. The period is used to mark the end of a complete 
and independent sentence ; as. The G-erman empire com- 
prised a great numher of states lying hetwesn France 
and Poland. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
What observation is made with respect to the period ? 

648. A period should be used after every abbreviated 
word ; as, Mr. B. ; 3 o clock, P. M. ; Mass. ; D. D. 

THE DASH. 

What is the rule for the dash? 

649. The dash should be used when a significant pause 



178 PUNCTUATION. 

is required ; wlien a sentence breaks off abruptly ; or 
when there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment ; as, 
If thou art he, so much respected once — but oh ! how 
fallen! how degraded! If acting conformably to the 
7'ule of our Creator — if promoting the welfare, of man- 
hind around us — if securing our own happiness^ are 
objects of the highest moment — then are we loudly called 
upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion 
and virtue. 

Here lies the great — False marble, where? 

Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 

THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

What is the rule for the note of interrog-ation ? 

650. The note of interrogation should be used at the 
end of all interrogative sentences ; as, Who calls me ? 
Where are you ? 

OBSERVATIONS. 
What I'emarks are made with respect to the interrogations ? 

651. The note of interrogation should not be used after 
sentences which, though in the form of questions, are 
merely expressions of admiration, or of some sudden 
emotion ; as. How often have we been melted to tears by 
his eloquence ! 

THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

What is the rule for the note of exclamation? 

652. The note of exclamation should be used after 
words or sentences expressive of sudden or violent emo- 
tion ; as, Hear 7ne, Lord ! Oh! how merciful lie toas! 



CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 179 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 

What is an ( ' ) apostrophe ? 

651. An apostrophe is a mark used to denote an ab- 
breviation; as, 'Tis, for it is; tlio\ for though; lovd, 
for loved ; or, to denote the possessive case ; as, A hoys 
*hat. 

What is a ( A ) caret ? 

655. A caret is a mark used to indicate the place where 
some word or letter has been left out in writing ; as, 1 

will i 

hope that you come to see me, and that you will hr ng 

your brother. 

What is a ( - ) hyphen ? 

656. A hyphen is a mark used to connect compound 
words ; as, Lap-dog, tea-pot. It is also placed at the 
end of a line, to show that one or more syllables of the 
last word are carried to the next line. 

What is an accent ? 

657. An accent is a mark used to indicate syllables 
which require a particular stress of the voice in pronun- 
ciation. In English, accents are mostly restricted to 
spelling books and dictionaries. 

Mention the accents used in the English language. 

658. The accents used in the English language are : 
1st. The ( ') acute accent, which denotps close or short 

vowels, or the rising inflection of the voice. 

2d. The ( ' ) grave accent, which denotes open or long 
vowels, or the falling inflection of the voice. 

3d. The (^) circumflex accent, which denotes open or 
long vowels. 
16 



180 CHAUACTEKS USED IN COMPOSITION. 
What are the marks of quantity ? 

659. The marks of quantity are : 
1st. The ( " ) breve, which denotes short syllables ; as, 
Ahundant. 

2. The ( ~ ) macron, which denotes long syllables ; as, 

lldurnful. 

What is a ( •• ) diaeresis ? 

6S0. A diaeresis is a mark placed over the latter of two 
vowels, to show that they are not a diphthong; as, 
Creator^ aerial. 

What is a ( § ) section ? 

661. A section is a mark used to divide a chapter or 

discourse into smaller portions. 

What is a ( IT ) paragraph ? 

662. A paragraph is a mark which denotes the begin- 
ning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with 
the foregoing. 

What is the use of ( " " ) quotation marks ? _ 

663. Quotation marks are used to distinguish words 
which are taken from some other author or speaker ; as, 
Alexander, having a,shed Porus how he wished to he 
treated: '''As a king,'' replied the latter. 

What is the use of the ( > ) brace ? 

664. The brace is used to connect several terms with 
something to which they are related ; as, 

( common are those, &c. 
\ proper are those, &c. 

What is an ( ) (****) ellipsis ? 

665. An ellipsis is a mark which denotes the omission 



CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 181 

of some letters or words ; as, L d B m, for Lord 

Brougham; ^***j/, for Henry. 

What is an ( [Cr ) index ? 

666. An index is a mark used to point out a remark- 
able passage, or something that requires particular atten- 
tion. 

What is the use of the ( * ) asterisk, the ( t ) dagger, the ( X ) double 
dagger, and the ( i| ) parallel ? 

667. The asterisk, dagger, double dagger, and parallel 
are used to refer to marginal notes, or notes at the foot 
of the page. The letters of the alphabet and figures are 
used in the same waj. 

What is the use of the ( ( ) ) parenthesis ? 

668. Parentheses are used to inclose a word or clause 
which is introduced into the body of a sentence, and 
which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical 
construction; as, ''Know ye not brethren^ {for I speah 
to them that know the law,) how that the law hath domi- 
nion over a man as long as he livethf 

What is the use of ( [ ] ) brackets ? 

669. Brackets are used to enclose a word or sentence 
which is introduced to supply some deficiency, or correct 
some mistake ; as, Be [the teacher'] said so, 

670. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. The feudal government in its best state was a system of op- 
pression which destroyed all feeling of equality between man and 
man it was admirably calculated when the nobles were united for 
defence against the assaults of any foreign power but it possessed 
the feeblest bonds of political union and contained innumerable 
Bources of anarchy. 



182 CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 

2. Bolingbroke was not a poet but a man of vast genius a great 
statesman and a great writer on history and political philosophy 
but he was unprincipled and intriguing. 

3. Soldier awake the night is past 
Hear'st thou not the bugle's blast 
Feel'st thou not the dayspring's breath 
Kouse thee from thy bed of heath 
Arise thou bold and strong. 

4. Clime of the unforgotten brave 

Whose land from plain to mountain-cave 
Was Freedom's home or Glory's grave 
Shrine of the mighty can it be 
That this is all remains of thee 
Approach thou craven crouching slave 
Say is not this Thermopylse. 

671. EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. To sail on the tranquil surface of an unruffled lake and to 
steer a safe course through a troubled and stormy ocean require 
different talents and alas human life oftener resembles the stormy 
ocean than the unruffled lake. 

2. The scenes which present themselves at our entering the 
world are commonly flattering whatever they be in themselves the 
lively spirits of the young gild every opening prospect the field of 
hope appears to stretch wide before them pleasure seems to put 
forth its blossoms on every side impelled by desire forward they 
rush with inconsiderate ardor prompt to decide and to choose 
averse to hesitate or to inquire credulous because untaught by 
experience rash because unacquainted with danger headstrong 
because unsubdued by disappointment hence arise the perils to 
which they are exposed and which too often from want of attention 
to faithful admonition precipitate them into ruin irretrievable. 



THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 183 

DIRECTIONS RESPECTINa THE USE OF CAPITAL 
LETTERS. 

When should capital letters be used ? 

672. Capitals should be used in the following cases : 

1st. The title-page of a book, and the heading of 
chapters, &c., should be printed in capitals. 

2d. In quoting the titles of books every substantive and 
principal word should begin with a capital : as, Rollins 
Ancient History. 

3d. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, 
or of any other piece of writing, and also every word 
after a period, should begin with a capitaL 

4th. If the two sentences be totally independent, the 
first word after a note of interrogation or exclamation 
should begin with a capital. 

5th. The appellations of the Deity should begin with a 
capital; as, Grod ; Jehovah; the Almighty ; the iSupreme 
Being ; the Lo7'd; Providence; the Messiah; the Holy 
Spirit. 

6th. Every proper noun should begin with a capital ; 
as, Greorge; New York; the Thames; the Hudson. 

7th. Every adjective derived from a proper noun should 
begin with a capital ; as. His father is French, hut his 
mother is English. 

8th. The first word of a quotation or of an example, 
introduced after a semicolon or colon, should begin with 
a capital; as. Always rememler the ancient maxim; 
^'Know thyself 

9th. The first word in every line of poetry should 
begin with a capital. 
16* 



184 PRONUNCIATION. 

10th. The pronoun I and -the interjection are written 
in capitals ; as, / write ; Sear^ earth ! 

11th. A personal pronoun referring to the Deity is 
sometimes commenced with a capital ; as, Will He not 
hear thee ! 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the following : 

1. When all was ready, bonaparte Embarked at toulon, in a 
Fleet of thirteen ships of the Line, he was joined by Reinforce- 
ments at genoa, Ajaccio, civita Castellana, and on the 10th of June 
arrived At malta, which Capitulated without firing a Shot, he 
proceeded on His voyage, succeeded in escaping the Squadron of 
Nelson, and On the 1st of July reached alexandria. he was 
Vigorously opposed by the Mamelukes, but Advanced in spite of 
them to Cairo, And marched along the banks of the nile. Near 
the pyramids a Great Battle was fought; the mamelukes were 
Signally Defeated, and The Fate of egypt was Sealed. 

2. Ofl&cial accounts State the Loss of the britlsh Army at five 
Hundred and thirty men, among whom were Several Ofl&cers of 
distinguished merit. lieutenant-colonel stuart was Killed, and 
lieutenant-colonel webster Mortally wounded. 

3. They study Macauley's history of england. 

4. 'Mr. John Adams was appointed Minister plenipotentiary to 
the Court of st. James. 

PROSODY. 

What is prosody ? 

(;73. Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of 
pronunciation, figures, and versification. 

OF PRONUNCIATION. . 

What is meant by accent ? 

671. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the 
voice on a certain letter or syllable of a word, to distin- 



FiaUEES OF SPEECH. 185 

guish it from the remainder; thus, in the word presume, 
the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and second 
syllable sume, which take the accent. 

What is meant by quantity ? 

675. Quantity is the time occupied in pronouncing a 
syllable. A syllable is long when the accent is on the 
vowel ; as, Tale, bale ; and short when the accent is on 
the consonant; as, Bonnet, hunger. 

What is meant by emphasis ? 

676. Emphasis is a stronger and fuller sound of the 
voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress. 

What is meant by pauses ? 

677. Pausel are cessations in utterance, which serve 
both to relieve the speaker and to give distinctness and 
expression to the language. 

What is meant by tones ? 

678. Tones are variations and modulations of the voice, 
which should be adapted to the subject and occasion, and 
upon which the beauty of speech mostly depends. 



FiaURES OF SPEECH. 

What is a figure of speech ? 

679. A figure of speech is a deviation from the ordi- 
nary form, construction, or application of a word. 
Figures may be of etymology, of syntax, or of rhetoric. 



186 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 
What is a figure of etymology ? 

680. A figure of etymology is a departure from the 
ordinary form of a word. 

What are the principal figures of etymology ? 

681. The figures of etymology are : Aphoeresis, Syn- 
cope, Apocope, Prosthesis, Paragoge*, Synseresis, Diae- 
resis, and Tmesis. 

What is aphoeresis ? 

682. Aphoeresis is the cutting ofi" a letter or syllable 
from the beginning of a word ; as, ' Crainst, 'mid, 'neath, 
for against, amidst, beneath. 

What is syncope ? 

6>83. Syncope is the elision of one or more letters from 
the middle of a word ; as, Lingering, eer, o'er, for lin- 
gering, ever, over. 

What is apocope ? 

684. Apocope is the cutting ofi" one or several letters 
from the end of a word ; as, Tho\ for though. 

What is prosthesis ? 

685. Prosthesis is the addition of a letter or syllable 
to the beginning of a word; as, Adown, enchain, for 
down, chain. 

What is paragoge ? 

686. Paragoge is the addition of one or more letters 
to the end of a word ; as. Awaken, bounden, for awake, 
oound. 

What is synaeresis ? 

687. Synseresis is the contraction of two syllables or 
of two vowels into one ; as, Thourt, al-ye-nate, for thou 
art, alienate. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 187 

What is diaeresis ? 

688. Diseresis is the separation of two vowels, which 
would otherwise form a diphthong ; as, Cooperate, instead 
of coo'perate. 

What is tmesis ? 

689. Tmesis is the separation ef a compound word into 
two parts, by introducing another word between them ; 
as, To us ward, how high soever, for towards us, howso- 
ever high. 

690. EXEKCISE. 

What are the figures of etymology employed in the following exam- 
pies: 

'Midst the wild billows. 

Oft again we saw her ! 

It was not vain the hallowed and the tried. 

Thou seeJc'st my home, where solemn stars are burning. 

At summer's eve, when heaven's aerial bow 
Spans with bright arch the glittr'ing hills below. 

'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
And robes the mountain with its azure hue. 

They tell me, too, of serpents vast. 
That crawl on Afric's shore. 

And there ta'en horse, to tell the camp 
What deeds are done in Rome. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

What is a figure of syntax ? 

691. A figure of syntax is a deviation from the ordi- 
nary construction or arrangement of words. 



188 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

What are the principal figures of syntax ? 

692. The principal figures of syntax are : Ellipsis, 
Pleonasm, Enallage, and Syperhaton. 

What is ellipsis ? 

693. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words 
which are necessary to complete the grammatical con- 
struction, but not necessary to convey the meaning ; as. 
Who did it f I \_did it\ ; I am monarch of all [that 
which'] I survey ; This day and \this'\ hour ; When [it 
is~\ convenient, come and see me ; [_It is] Strange ! [It 
is] Wonderful! 

What is pleonasm ? 

694. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are 
necessary to express the meaning ; as, I hnow thee, who 
thou art. 

What is enallage 1 

695. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for 
another ; as, They fall successive [ly] and successive [ly] 
rise. 

What is hyperbaton ? 

696. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, 
Rings the world with the vain stir. 

697. EXERCISE. 

What are the figures in the following examples ? 
And — when I am forgotten, as I shall be. 

And like a silver clarion rung 

The accents of that unknown tongue. 

King Almansor of Granada, he hath bid the trumpet sound. 

Sometimes with early morn, he mounted gay. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. - 189 

FiaURES OF RHETORIC. 

What is a figure of rhetoric ? ^ 

698. A figure of rhetoric is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary signification of words ; it is sometimes 
called a trope. 

What are the principal figures of rhetoric ? 

699. The principal figures of rhetoric are : Metaphor, 
Simile^ Antithesis, Hyperbole, Personification, Meton- 
ymy, Vision, Synecdoche, Irony, Exclamation, Inter- 
rogation, Apostrophe, and Climax. 

What is metaphor ? 

700. Metaphor is applying the name of one thing to 
another, on account of the resemblance between them ; 
as, " Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my 
path:' 

What are the principal rules to be observed in the use of metaphors ? 

701. The principal rules to be observed in the use of 
metaphors are : 

1. Metaphors should not be used too frequently ; and 
should always accord with the general strain of the sub- 
ject treated. 

2. Metaphors being used to give a clearer and more 
striking view of the principal object, care should be taken 
that the resemblance be clear, not far-fetched, nor diffi- 
cult to discover. 

3. A metaphor must not be carried out too far, as 
the sense is then apt to become obscure. We have an 
instance of this error in the following lines of Dr. Young, 
where, speaking of old age, he says, it should 

" Walk thoughtful on the silent, solemn shore 
Of that vast ocean, it must sail so soon ; 



190 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

And put good works on board ; and wait the wind 
Tiiat shortly blows us into worlds unknown." 

What is allegory ? 

702. Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a kind 
of parable. The "Pilgrim's Progress" is an allegory. 

What is simile ? 

70S. Simile is a formal comparison, and is generally 
introduced by the word like^ as, or so ; as, ''As the moun- 
tains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round 
about his people.'' 

What is antithesis ? 

.704. Antithesis is the placing of objects in opposition, 
so as to heighten their effect by contrast ; as, " If you 
wish to enrich a person, study not*to increase his store, 
but to diminish his desires.'' 

What is hyperbole ? 

705. Hyperbole is an extravagant exaggeration in the 
use of language ; as. Quick as lightning ; White as snow; 
''Rivers of water run down my eyes, because they keep 
not thy law." 

What is personification ? 

706. Personification is a figure by which we attribute 
life and , action to inanimate objects; thus Milton says, 
speaking of Eve's eating the forbidden fruit : 

" So saying, her rash hand, in evil hour, 
Forth reaching to the fruit, she pluck'd, she ate : 
Earth felt the wound, and nature from her seat, 
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe, 
That all was lost." 

What is metonymy ? 

707. Metonymy is a figure by which one thing is put 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 191 

for another ; as, Grey hairs should he respected^ instead 
of old age, &c. ; The kettle boils, instead of the water 
which is in the kettle boils. 

What is vision ? 

708. Vision is a figure by which the speaker represents 
the objects of his imagination as actually before his eyes 
and present to his senses ; thus, when Cicero, in his 
fourth oration against Cataline, says: '^ I seem to myself 
to behold this city, the ornament of the earth and the 
capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one confla- 
gration. I see before me the slaughtered heai^s of citizens, 
lying buried in the midst of their ruined country.'' 

What is synecdoche ? 

709. Synecdoche is a figure by which the whole is put 
for a part, or a part for the whole ; as, This roof [i. e. 
house'] protects you. 

What is irony ? 

710. Irony is a figure in which the speaker utters the 
reverse of what he intends shall be understood, not with 
a view to deceive, but to add force to his observations ; as, 
when Elijah, challenging the priests of Baal, says: ''Cry 
aloud, for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pur- 
suing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, 
and must be awaked.^' 

What is exclamation ? 

711. Exclamation is used to express some strong emo- 
tion of the mind ; as, misery ! worse than death ! 

What is interrogation ? 

712. Interrogation is a figure by which we express 
strong or passionate affirmation, in the form of a ques- 

17 



192 FIGURES OF KHETOEIC. 

tion ; as, '''Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it 
goodr 

What is apostrophe ? 

713. Apostrophe is a figure bj wMch the speaker or 
writer turns from the party to whom his discourse is 
mainly directed, and addresses some other person or 
thing; as, ''''Death is swallowed up in victory. Death, 
where is thy sting ? G-rave^ where is thy victory f 

What is climax ? 

714. Climax is a figure in which the ideas rise gradu- 
ally to what is more and more important or sublime ; as, 
" What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! 
how infinite in faculties ! in form and moving^ how ex- 
press and admirable! in action, how like an angel! in 
apprehension, how like a god!'' 

715. EXERCISE. 
What are the figures of rhetoric employed in the following- examples ? 

1. The queen of the spring, as she passed down the vale, 
Left her robe on the trees, and her breath on the gale. 

2. His voice was like thunder. 

3. Switzerland ! my country ! 'tis to thee 
I strike my harp in agony ; — 

My country ! nurse of liberty, 
Home of the gallant, great, and free, 
My sullen harp I strike to thee. 

4. An elevated genius, employed in little things, appears like 
the sun in his evening declination ; he remits his splendor, but 
retains his magnitude, and pleases more, though he dazzles less. 

5. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green. 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown. 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 



VERSIFICATION. 198 

6. Pride is founded on a high opinion of ourselves ; humility 
on the consciousness of the want of merit. Pride is the offspring 
of ignorance ; humility is the child of wisdom. Pride hardens the 
heart ; humility softens the temper and the disposition. Pride is 
deaf to the clamors of conscience ; humility listens with reverence 
to the monitor within. 

7. Let freedom circulate through every vein of all your empire. 

8. my son Absalom ! would God I had died for thee, Absa- 
lom, my son I 

9. Hand and voice, 

Awake, awake ! and thou, my heart, awake ! 
Green fields and icy cliffs, all join my hymn ! 
And thou ! silent mountain ! sole and bare. 

10. The speech of Mr. Otis was so interesting and impressive, 
that the very walls listened to his arguments, and were moved by 
his eloquence. 

11. 0, unexpected stroke, worse than of death ! 
Must I thus leave thee. Paradise ? Thus leave 
Thee, native soil ; these happy walks and shades, 
Pit haunt of gods ; where I had hope to spend. 
Quiet, though sad, the respite of that day. 
Which must be mortal to us both ? 



VERSIFICATION. 

What is versification ? 

716. Versification is tne arrangement of a certain 
number and variety of syllables according to certain 
laws, so as to produce harmony. 

What is a verse ? 

717. A verse consists of a certain number of accented 
and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed 
rules. 



194 VERSIFICATION. 

What is rhyme 

718. Khyme is the correspondence of the last sound of 
one line to the last sound of another ; as, 

O'er a low couch the setting sun had thrown its latest ray, 
Where, in his last strong agony, a dying warrior lay. 

What is blank verse ? 

719. Blank verse is that kind of poetry in which the 
lines do not end in rhyme ; as, 

Ye woods and wilds ! whose melancholy gloom 
Accords with my souFs sadness, and draws forth 
The voice of sorrow from my bursting heart — 
Farewell awhile. I will not leave you long ; 
For in your shades I deem some spirit dwells. 
Who, from the chiding stream, or groaning oak, 
Still hears and answers to Matilda's groan. 

What are poetical feet ? 

720. Poetical feet are the smaller portions into which 
a line or verse is divided. They are called feet, because 
it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along 
through the verse in a measured pace ; as, 

The fraglrant birch | above | him hung. 
How many kinds of feet are used in English poetry ? 

721. Eight kinds of feet are used in English poetry; 
four of two syllables, and four of three. 

mm 

FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

1. An iambus ( " " ) ; as, defend. 

2. A trochee (~ "); as, noble. 

3. A spondee ( ~ ~ ) ; as, vain man. 

4. A pyrrhic ( " " ) ; as, o^ a (MU). 



VERSIFICATION. 195 

FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

5. An anapest ("""); as, intercede. 

6. A dactyl (~ " ") ; as, virtuous. 

7. An amphibrach ("""); as, contentment. 

8. A tribrach ("""); as, (nu)merdhle. 

What is iambic verse ? 

722. Iambic verse is verse composed of iambic feet; 
that is, feet of two syllables, the first unaccented or short, 
the second accented or long. 

What are the most common forms of iambic verse ? 

723. The most common forms of iambic verse are : 
1st. Four iambuses, or eight syllables in a line, as ; 

When Free|dom, from | her inoun|tam bight, 
UnfurPd I her stan[dard to [ the air, 
She tore | the a|zure robe [ of night, 
And set I the stars ] of glojry there. 

2d. Five iambuses, or ten syllables in a line ; as, 

To whom, J in brief, | thus Ab|diel stern | replied: 

3d. Each variety of iambic verse may have one addi- 
tional short syllable ; as. 

First this [ large par | eel brings ] you ti| dings. 
Each sublstance of | a grief | hath twen|ty shad|ow8. 
What is trochaic verse ? 

724. Trochaic verse is composed of trochaic feet, and 
has the accent on the odd syllables. 

What are trochaic feet? 

725. Trochaic feet are those consisting of two syllables, 

the first accented and the second unaccented ; as, Qdrefulj 

thunder. 
17* 



196 VERSIFICATION. 

What are the most common forms of trochaic verse ? 

726. The most common forms of the trochaic verse are: 
1st. Three trochees, or six syllables, in a line ; as, 

When our | hearts are j mourning ; 

or three trochees and an additional long syllable ; as, 

Restless | mortals | toil for | nought ; 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought. 

2d. Four trochees, or eight syllables in a line ; as, 

Round us I roars the | tempest | louder ; 

or four trochees and an additional long syllable ; as, 

Idle I after | dinner | in his | chair, 
Sat a I farmer, | ruddy | fat and j fair. 

3d. Six trochees, or twelve syllables, in a line ; as, 

On a I mountain | stretched belneath a \ hoary | willow, 
Lay a^ j shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | bill5w. 

What is anapestic verse ? 

727. Anapestic verse has the accent on every third 
syllable ; as, Correspond, legislate. 

What are the most common forms of anapestic verse ? 

728. The most common forms of anapestic verse are : 
1st. Two anapestic feet, or six syllables in a line, or 

two anapests and a short syllable ; as. 

Where the sun | loves to pause 
With so fond | 2, delay. 

For no arts | could avail [ him. 

2d. Three anapestic feet, or nine syllables in a line ; as, 

I S,m out I 5f human [ity's reach, 
I must finjish my jourjney S,lone. 



VERSIFICATION. ^ 197 

3d. Four anapestic feet, or twelve syllables in a line ; 

as, 

At the close | of the day, | when the ham [let is still, 
And morltals the sweets | of forgetlfulness prove.* 

What is dactylic verse ? 

729. Dactylic verse is that whicli consists of one long 
or accented syllable, and two short ones ; as, Crentleness, 
loveliness. 

There are dactyls of one, two, three, and four feet ; 
but none of them are in frequent use. 

What is a couplet ? 

730. A couplet, or distich, consists of two lines, making 
complete sense ; as. 

Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
'* Virtue alone is happiness below." 

What is a triplet ? 

731. A triplet consists of three lines which rhyme 
together ; as, 

Sleep ! we give thee to the wave, 
Red with life-blood from the brave ; 
Thou shalt find a noble grave. 

What is a stanza 1 

732. A stanza is a combination of several lines, con- 
stituting a regular division of a poem. 

What is scanning ? 

733. Scanning is dividing verses into the poetic feet of 
which they are composed. 

* The first foot of an anapestic verse is sometimes an iambus. 



198 VEESIFICATION. 

734. EXERCISE. 
Scan the following, and tell what kind of verses they are : 

1. Oh ! bring me one sweet orange bjough, 
To fan my cheek, to cool my brow ; 
One bough, with pearly blossoms drest, 
And bind it, mother ! on my breast ! 

2. Willow ! in thy breezy moan 
I can hear a deeper tone ; 

Through thy leaves come whispering low 
Faint, sweet sounds of long ago. 

3. I had a dream, which was not all a dream. 
The bright sun was extinguished, and the stars 
Did wander, darkling, in the eternal space. 

4. The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea. 
When the blue wave rolls mightily on deep Galilee. 
Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest, when autumn hath blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

5. Farewell to thee, France ! when thy diadem crowned me, 

I made thee the gem and the wonder of earth, — 
But thy weakness decrees I should leave as I found thee, 

Decayed in thy glory and sunk in thy worth. 
Oh ! for the veteran hearts that were wasted 

In strife with the storm when their battles were won — 
Then the eagle, whose gaze in that moment was blasted, 

Had still soared with eyes fixed on victory's sun ! 

6. Oh ! call my brother back to me ; 
I cannot play alone !* 

* Different kinds of feet are often mingled in the same poetry. 



ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WHITING. 



199 



The summer comes with flower and bee, — 
"Where is my brother gone ? 

7. Oh ! heard ye yon pibroch sound sad in the gale, 
Where a band cometh slowly, with weeping and wail ? 
'Tis the chief of Glenara laments for his dear ; 
And her sire and her people are called to her bier. 

8. 'Twere long to tell, and sad to trace 
Each step from splendor to disgrace : 
Enough, no foreign foe could quell 
Thy soul, ^till from itself it fell. 
Yes ! self-abasement paved the way 
To villain bonds and despot sway. 



735. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ABBREVIATIONS USED 
IN WRITING. 



A. B. 07' B. A. — Artium bacca- 
laureus. Bachelor of Arts. 

A. C. — Ante Christum, Before 
Christ. 

A. D. — Anno Domini, in the 
year of our Lord. 

Acct. — Account. 

A. A. S. — Academics Americance 
Socius, Fellow of the Ameri- 
can Academy. 

Ala. — Alabama. 

A. M. — Ante Meridiem, before 
noon. 

A. M. — Anno Mundi, in the year 
of the world. 

A. M. — Artium Magister, Master 
of Arts. 

Apr. — April. 

Ark. — Arkansas. 

Aug. — August. 



Bart. — Baronet. 
Bbl. or Bar. — Barrel. 
B. C— Before Christ. 

B. D. — Bachelor of Divinity. 
Bp. — Bishop. 

Cal. — California. 

C. or Cent. — Hundred. 
Capt. — Captain. 
Chap. — Chapter. 

Co. — Company. 

Co. — County. 

Col.— Colonel 

Coll.— College. 

Cr. — Credit, Creditor. 

Conn, or Ct. — Connecticut. 

Cts. — Cents. 

Cwt. — Hundred weight. 

D. C. — District of Columbia. 
D. D. — Doctor of Divinity. 
Dec. — December. 



200 



ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WRITING. 



Deg. — Degree. 

Del. — Delaware. 

Dep. — Deputy. 

Do. or ditto. — The same. 

Doct. — Doctor. 

Dolls, or $.— Dollars. 

Doz. — Dozen. 

Dr. — Debtor, or Doctor. 

Dwt. — Pennyweight. 

E.— East. 

Ed. — Editor, or Edition. 

Eng. — England, or English. 

Esq. — Esquire. 

Etc. — Et cetera ; and so forth. 

Exr. — Executor. 

Feb. — February. 

Fig. — Figure. 

Fla.— Florida. 

Fol.— Folio. 

F. E. S.— Fellow of the Royal 

Society. 
Ga. — Georgia. 
Gall.— Gallon. 
Gent. — Gentleman. 
Gr. Grain. 
H. B. M. — His or Her Britannic 

Majesty. 
Hhd. — Hogshead. 
H. M. — His or Her Majesty. 
Hon. — Honorable. 
Hund. — Hundred. 
Ind. — Indiana, 
lb. or ibid. — Ibidem; in the same 

place. 
I. e. — Id est, that is. 
I. H. S. — Jesus Hominum Sal- 

vator ; Jesus, Saviour of men. 
111.— niinois. 



Inst. — Of the present month. 

Incog.— Incognito ; unknown. 

lo. — Iowa. 

Jan . — Jan u ary . 

Jun. or Jr. — Junior. 

Kt.— Knight. 

Ky. — Kentucky. 

La. — Louisiana. 

Lat. — Latitude. 

L. C. — Lower California. 

Lieut. — Lieutenant. 

LL. D. — Legum Doctor; Doctor 
of Laws. 

Lon. — Longitude. 

Lond. — London. 

M. — Mille, a thousand. 

M. A.— Master of Arts. 

Maj. — Major. 

Mar.— March. 

Mass. — Massachusetts. ' 

M. C. — Member of Congress. 

Md. — Maryland. 

M. D. — Medicine Doctor; Doctor 
of Medicine. 

Me. — Maine. 

Messrs. — Messieurs ; gentle- 
men. 

Miss. — Mississippi. 

M. S. — Memorice sacrum ; sacred 
to the memory. 

Mich. — Michigan. 

Mo. — Missouri. 

M. P.— Member of Parliament. 

Mr. — Mister. 

Mrs. — Mistress. 

MS. — Manuscript. 

MSS.— Manuscripts. 

N.—North. 



ABBREVIATIONS USED IN WRITING, 



201 



N. B. — Nota bene; take particu- 
lar notice. 

N. B. — New Brunswick. 

N. C. — North Carolina. 

N. E. — New England, or North- 
east. 

Nem. con. — Nemine contradi- 
cenie; no one opposing. 

N. H. — New Hampshire. 

N. J. — New Jersey. 

No. — Number. 

N. 0. — New Orleans. 

Nov. — November. 

N. S. — Nova Scotia, or New 
Style. 

N. W.— North-west. 

N. Y.— New York. 

0.— Ohio. 

Obt.— Obedient. 

Oct. — October. 

Ogn. — Oregon. 

O. S.— Old Style. 

Oz. — Ounce. 

Pa. or Penn. — Pennsylvania. 

Per cent. — Per centum; by the 
hundred. 

P. M. — Post-master. 

P.M. — Post Mer-idiem; afternoon. 

P. 0.— Post-office. 

Pres. — President. 

Prof. — Professor. 

P. S. — Post scriptum ; postscript. 

Q. — Question. 

Qr. — Quarter. 

Q. V. — Quod vide; which see. 

Rev. — Reverend, or Revelation. 



R. I.— Rhode Island. 

R. N. — Royal Navy. 

Rt. Hon. — Right Honorable. 

S.— South. 

S. C. — South Carolina. 

Sec. — Secretary. 

S. E.— South-east. 

Sen. — Senior. 

Sept. — September. 

St. — Saint, or Street. 

S. T. D. — Sanctce theologice do^ 

tor; Doctor of theology. 
S. W.— South-west. 
Tenn. — Tennessee. 
U. C. — Upper Canada. 
TJlt. — Ultimo; last month. 
U. S.— United States. 
U. S. A.— United States Army. 
U. S. N.— United States Navy. 
V. or Vid. — Vide; see. 
Va. — ^Virginia. 
Viz. — Videlicet; namely. 
Vol. — Volume. 
Vols. — Volumes. 
Vs. — Versus; against. 
Vt. — Vermont. 
W.— West. 
W. I.— West Indies. 
Wt.— Weight. 
Yd.— Yard. 
& — And. 

&c. — JEt cetera; and so forth. 
4to. — Quarto. 
8vo. — Octavo. 
12mo. — Duodecimo. 
18mo. — Octodecimo. 



202 WORBS USED AS DIFFEREI^T PARTS OF SPEECH. 

WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

736. As is a relative, when it follows many, such, or 
same; as, Such as laugh to day may cry to-morrow. 

As is an adverb, when it is joined to an adverb or 
adjective, in the sense of so ; as He does as well as he 
can. 

As is a conjunction, in all cases except when it is an 
adverb or relative ; as, I directed him to do as he did, 

737. But is a preposition, when it has the sense of 
except; as, All but Charles returned. 

But is an adverb, when it has the sense of only; as, 
This is BUT asking for justice. 

But is a conjunction, in all cases when it is neither an 
adverb nor a preposition ; as, He asked, but I denied his 
request. 

738. Both is an adjective, when it means "the two;" 
as. Both the men labored at it. 

Both is a conjunction, when it is followed by and; as, 
We waited for him, both for his company and influence, 

739. Either is an adjective, when it means " one of the 
two ;" as. You may take either book. 

Hither is a conjunction, when it corresponds to or ; as, 
Either the man or the boy. 

740. For is a conjunction, when it has the meaning of 
because; as, I trusted him, for I knew he would not 
deceive me. 

For is a preposition, in all cases except when it is a 
conjunction ; as, He rides for pleasure. 

741. Like is an adjective, when it means similar; as, 
The portrait is like him. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 203 

Like is an advert, when it qualifies a verb ; as, She 
acts LIKE her mother. 

Like is a verb, when it means to be pleased with ; as, 
I LIKE reading. 

742. Much is a noun, when it stands for quantity ; as, 
Where much is given much will he required. 

Much is an adjective, when it is joined to a noun, ex- 
pressed or understood; as. Much labor is required to 
build a house. 

Much is an adverb, when it qualifies the same parts of 
speech that the adverb does ; as, Charles is a much 
better grammarian than John. 

743. More is a noun, when it implies quantity; as, 
The MORE we have, the more we desire. 

More and most are adjectives, when they qualify a 
noun ; as, The more money he has, the more trouble he 
may expect ; Most men are fond of pleasure. 

More and most are adverbs, when used in comparison ; 
as, This book is more valuable than that ; John is the 
most diligent. 

744. Since is a conjunction, in the sense of seeing that; 
as, I will go, since the rain has ceased. 

Since is an adverb, when it means ago; as. He arrived 
long since. 

Since is 2i> preposition, when it means after ; as. Since 
the storm passed, the weather has been pleasant. 

745. That is a relative pronoun, when who or which 
may be substituted for it ; as. The man that brought the 
news. 

That is an adjective, when it is joined to a noun to 
point it out ; as. That man is industrious, • 



204 WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 

That is an adjective pronoun, wben it stands for a noun 
and definite article ; as, Your house is larger than that 
of my father. 

That is a conjunction, in all cases when it is neither a 
relative pronoun,, an adjective pronoun, nor an adjective ; 
as, He studies, that he may improve. 

746. Then is a conjunction, when it has the sense of 
therefore ; as. If he has called me, then / must go. 

Then is an adverb, when it refers to time ; as, Bid you 
hear the report THEN ? 

747. What is a compound relative, when it stands for 
that which; as, I will take what you give me. 

What is an interrogative pronoun, when used in asking 
questions ; as. What do you wish f 

What is an adjective, when joined with a noun ; as, 
What a noise that child does mahe ! 

What is a compound relative pronoun, when joined with 
a noun, and has the sense of two or more words; as, It 
is known in what manner he succeeded; that is, the 
manner in which. 

What is an interjection, when used to express wonder ; 
as, What ! have you hut one for me ? 

748. While is a noun, when it denotes time ; as, He 
waited a while for me. 

While is a verh, in the sense of to loiter; as, John 
was disposed to while away his time. 

While is an adverb, when it qualifies a verb ; as, He 
"listened while I addressed him. 



DIRECTIONS TO PROOF-READERS. 205 

749. DIKECTIONS TO PROOF-READERS. 

The manner in which errors are noticed in a proof, is by marks 
or signs ; a specimen of which will he found on page 206. 

If it is desired to change a word from any other character to 
capitals, three lines are to be drawn under the word to be altered, 
and Caps, written in the margin. If to small capitals, two lines, 
and sm. caps, written in the margin. If to italic, one line, and 
ital. written in the margin. Authors, in preparing their copy, 
designate the words to be thus emphasised, by merely drawing the 
lines under them, without the corresponding marks. 

A wrong letter is noticed by drawing a short perpendicular line 
through it, and making a similar line in the margin, behind which 
the right letter is written. 

To change a single letter to a capital, a line is drawn through it, 
and the capital written in the margin, with three marks underneath. 

Where words are transposed, a line is drawn separating, and at 
the same time enclosing the different portions of the transposition, 
and tr. written in the margin. 

When a letter is left out, a caret is marked where the deficiency 
occurs, and the letter is written in the margin. 

To form a new paragraph, the commencement is marked with a 
bracket, and an imitation of the paragraph mark made in the margin. 

Where a paragraph is made in the wrong place, a line is drawn 
from the end of the last line of the preceding one to the first line 
of the one to be continued, and no hreaJc written in the margin. 

Points are marked in the same manner as letters, erasing or un- 
derlining them in the proof, and writing the correct ones in the 
margin. The period, being a very minute mark, and likely to pass 
unnoticed, is always encircled with a line. The apostrophe has a 
line underneath it (thus V ) to distinguish it from the comma. 

A letter is marked out by this mark : ^ 

A turned letter is marked thus : Q 

An indention needed, by a square mark, thus : []] 

Where letters do not line, it is noticed by drawing a line over 
and under, and two lines in the margin. 

Matter omitted is written in the margin, or at the bottom of the 
page, and a line drawn to it from where the omission occurred. 

A space requited, is marked in the margin, thus : I/ 



206 



DIRECTIONS TO PROOF-READERS. 




na mci 




© 




Minerva. 

Minerva was represented as a beautiful 
woman, though possessing a countenence some- 
what severe. on her head was a golden 
helmet, and her breast plate was also made 
of gold.. (Minerva J in her right hand]) bore 
a beaming lance, and in her left a bi^ler, called 
the ^gis. [The ^gis of Minerva had embossed 
upon it the head of Medusa.\ 

(Medusa w^as one of the Gorgons, a sea- 
nymph ; she offended Minerva, and the goddess, 
in revenge, transfoprmed her beautiful hair to 
frightful serpents. Thus disfigured, Medusa be- 
came 4fe€- object of aversion and horror. Per- 
seus, a prince of Argos, was employed to cut off 
this terrific head, 

Perseus, in this expedition, was assisted by 
the gods. Me^c^^y g^"^® ^i"^ ^ cimeter and 
lent him a shield, polished like a mirror ; 
andPluto bestowed upon him a helmet which 
rendered him invisible. 



DIRECTIONS TO PROOF-READERS. 207 

MINERYA. 

Minerva was represented as a beautiful 
woman, though possessing a countenance some- 
what severe. On her head was a golden 
helmet, and her breastplate was also made 
of gold. In her right hand Minerva bore 
a beaming lance, and in her left a buckler, 
called the ^gis. 

The -^gis of Minerva had embossed upon 
it the head of Medusa. Medusa was one of the 
Gorgons, a sea-nymph: she offended Minerva, 
and the goddess, in revenge, transformed her 
beautiful hair to frightful serpents. Thus dis- 
figured, Medusa became an object of aversion 
and horror. Perseus, a prince of Argos, was 
employed to cut off this terrific head. 

Perseus, in this expedition, was assisted by 
the gods. Mercury gave him a cimeter and 
the wings from his heels ; Minerva lent him a 
shield, polished like a mirror; and Pluto be- 
stowed upon him a helmet which rendered him 

invisible. 
18 



208 EXERCISE IN PROOF-READING 



750. EXERCISE IN PROOF-READING. 

Perhaps the most surprising circumstance in Csesars career, is 
the fact that, notwithstanding his extroordinary activity ever since 
his entering upon public life, he found leisure to cultiate the arts 
and literature, and to compose works which, like those of cicero, 
gave the literary tone and character to that period, and which to 
this day are ranked among the finestspecimens of ancient litera- 
ture, unfortunately, the greater number of them lost, and only a 
few isolated passages remain; which are occasionally quoted by 
later writers. He was also one of the first orators of his age. and 
we possess a long catalogue of subjects in which he spoke in 
public ; 

But it was not only the history and politicks of his own time 
which engagedhis attention; there was nothing capable of fur- 
nishing materiels for the human mind to upon, which did not at 
one or another occupy him ; and among his many work, there was 
one even on grammar, which is often quoted as the authority by 
the later grammarians of Rome. Caesar, in short, must be pro- 
nounced to have been a universal geniug ; he was great, not only 
as a General, but as a statesman, a law giver, a jurist, an orator, 
a poet, a historian, a Scholar, a mathematician, and a an architect. 



SYMBOLS USED FOR PARSING IN SHORT-HAND. 209 



SYMBOLS OR CHARACTEKS USED FOR PARSING- 
IN SHORT HAND. 

751. The following tables are intended for reference, 
but need not be studied, as the learner will become suffi- 
ciently familiar with the symbols as they gradually come 
into use. 



f Nouns 




{Prepositions 
Conjunctions . 



Are used to represent per- 
sons or things. 

Are used to express action 
or being. 



Participate of verbs and of 
adjectives. 



Are used to qualify or de- 
termine. 



Are used to connect and 
indicate relations. 



6. Interjections. . . . 



Are used to express sudden 
emotions 



210 SYMBOLS USED FOR PARSING IN SHORT-HAND. 



MODIFICATIONS IN NOUNS. 

(See 752.) 

Proper ...^i.-^^. 

Common ■■■ 






'^ J 



Masculine ^ 

Feminine £_ 

Common £- 

Neuter »»« 



g f First. 
g < Second. 
f^ I Third 

g J Singular. 



Nominative .... 

Possessive , 

Objective (gov- 
erned by a verb) 

Objective (gov- 
erned by a prep.) 



/TN 



MODIFICATIONS IN PRO- 
NOUNS. 



' Personal ^ 

Relative ^ 

Interrogative . . 

Adjec- f Demon. 

tive.. llndef. .. 




The gender, person, number, and case 
of pronouns is marked, as with nouns. 



MODIFICATIONS IN ADJEC- 
TIVES. 

Positive 



Comparative . 



Superlative . 



Cardinal 



T 
T 
T 
T 



Ordinal . 



Proportional , 



T 



MODIFICATIONS IN ARTICLES. 






Definite 



Indefinite 



MODIFICATIONS IN PARTI- 
CIPLES. 

The Present has no ap- 
pendage 

The Perfect has a mark 
on the first branch . . . 

The Compound Perfect 
has a mark on the 
second branch 



+- 



SYMBOLS USED FOR PARSING IN SHORT-HAND. . 211 



MODIFICATIONS IN VERBS. 

(See 753.) 



' Regular, no dot on 
the first branch . . 



Irregular, a dot on 
the first branch 



X 

;'x 



Transitiye, no dot \/ 
on the 2d branch . *^^ 



Intransitive, a dot \/ 
on the 2d branch . /\ 



Infinitive, no ap- V/ 
. pendage ^^ 

Indicative, the first 
and 2d branches Y 
united ^ ^ 

Subjunctive, the 2d 
and 3d branches 
united 

Potential, the 3d 
and 4th branches \q 
united ^^-^ 

Imperative, the 4th 
and 1st branches Ij^ 
united i^ ^ 

18* 



Present, no appen- \X 
dage /\ 



Imperfect, a mark 
on the first branch 



Perfect, a mark on 
the second branch 



Pluperfect, a mark 
on the 3d branch . 

First Future, a 
mark on the 4th 
branch 

Second Future, a 
double mark on 
the 4th branch . . . 



Active, no appen- 
dage 



X 
>^ 

X 
X 



•s^ 



Passive, a horizontal - 
line on the left of •y^ 
the centre ^ ^ 



The number and person of yerbs ia 
maxked, as with nouns or pronouns. 



212 SYMBOLS USED FOR PARSING IN SHORT-HAND. 

752. Several of the symbols being apparently alike, 
there may, at first view, appear to be some difficulty in 
distinguishing them : thus i is used to designate 
proper nouns, and also nouns in the neuter gender, as 
well as the same part of speech in the plural number. 
When — — ^ is written without a c underneath on the 
left side, it expresses a proper noun ; the absence of a 
letter above it on the left side, makes it the sign of the 
neuter gender ; and the omission of the s above it, on the 
right side, constitutes it the symbol of the plural number. 
— therefore signifies proper noun, neuter gender, 
plural number. 

EXAMPLES. . 

,«.«««.^.^- signifies proper noun, neuter gender, plural number. 
^ signifies common noun, neuter gender, plural number. 

m signifies common noun, masculine gender, plural number. 

^ signifies proper noun, neuter gender, singular number. 
f — .s signifies common noun, feminine gender, first person, 
singular number, nominative case, 
signifies common noun, masculine gender, second per- 
son, plural number, possessive case. 
^^ signifies personal pronoun, masculine gender, second 
person, plural number, possessive case. 

753. What has been said (752) may also apply to the 
verbs : thus : 



m. W 
C 2 



m^ 



X 
X 

• • 

X 



signifies regular transitive verb, infinitive mood, 
signifies irregular transitive verb, infinitive mood, 
signifies irregular intransitive verb, infinitive mood. 



X 



SYMBOLS USED FOR PARSING IN SHORT-HAND. 213 

signifies regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present 
tense, plural number, active voice. 

signifies regular transitive verb, indicative mood, imperfect 
tense, second person, singular number, active voice. 

signifies irregular transitive verb, indicative mood, first 
future tense, third person, singular number, passive voice. 



THE END, 



HAYES 8l ZELL'S 

SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS. 

AMERICAN ORATOR'S OWN BOOK. 

A MANUAL OF EXTEMPORANEOCTS ELOQUENCE ; 

Including- a Course of Discipline for obtaining the Faculties of Dis- 
crimination, Arrangement, and Oral Discussion; with a Debate, 
as an Exercise in Argumentative Declamation, and numerous 
Selections for Practice, from the most eminent American, English, 
and Irish Orators and Writers, in Prose and Poetry. Written and 
compiled for the use of Colleges, Schools, and Students of Oratory, 
by a Graduate of Harvard University. With excellent Portraits, 
on steel, of Patrick Henry and Chief Justice Marshall. In 1 
volume, 18mo, ; half-embossed cloth. Price, 38 cents. 

The Publishers would call the attention of young men to this 
work, which has been fortunate in receiving the unqualified and 
warm approbation of the most enlightened conductors of the public 
press, and also of all teachers and parents to whose inspection it has 
been submitted. 

In this country, where the highest offices of honor and emolument 
are alike open to all, and where the effects of popular influence is so 
visible, it behooves all who have the least idea of gaining this popu- 
larity, or those who wish to form correct and beautiful methods of 
intercourse with their fellows, either in ordinary conversation or in 
the higher field of public speaking, to study critically the above little 
manual of those arts : as the publishers fully believe that therein 
will be found, not only all the old established rules of rhetoric, but 
many new and important practical suggestions, not found in any 
other treatise upon the subject. 

Great care has been taken in the selections of composition and 
eloquence contained in this work, so as to make it fiilly meet the 
wishes of the most critical ; and a new field has been opened, which 



HAYES & ZELL'S SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS. 

has been much neglected in nearly all previous works — the training 
of the mind to the habit of thinking- accurately, and of expressing its 
ideas in a clear and elegant manner. 

The "American Orator's Own Book" has received the commen- 
dations of many of the distinguished men of this country, and is 
recommended to all who wish a thorough knowledge of the princi- 
ples on which rest a gentlemanly and ready address, in public and 
private. 

EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS. 

From the Pennsylvanian. 

" The American Orator's Own Book. — Messrs. Hayes & Zell have 
just published a book bearing the above title. It is dedicated to the 
Hon. William C. Preston, member of the United States Senate from 
South Carolina, the model of the extemporaneous orator, and the 
ardent and fearless patriot. America appears to be the favored 
home of eloquence ; and our country has produced, even at its pre- 
sent early age, a brilliant constellation of oratorical genius. The 
work before us comprises a number of selections from American 
speeches, and all of them do honor to the country and the age. Stili 
it must be admitted that the prevailing style and manner of speak- 
ing in this country are defective. Culture and care are needed to 
soflen and refine the style of our public speakers, and correct those 
defective mannerisms, those traits of provincial peculiarities, which 
now obscure the mass of our political speeches. The volume con- 
tains the likenesses of two distinguished American orators ; and is 
made up of admirable specimens of, and exercises in, eloquence. It 
will be found highly useful in schools, and to the general reader." 

From the United States Gazette. 
"This is a pocket volume, very handsomely got up by Messrs, 
Hayes & Zell. The volume contains numerous rules and examples 
of vital importance to correct reading, and the directions are carried 
out to the formation of discourses, to the use of argument, and these 
are succeeded by selections. The volume is valuable to the reader 
and speaker, and must benefit those who address public assemblies." 

Fi-om the Saturday Neics. 
" It is not a mere compilation of speeches, gathered without care, 
and offered without comment; but it is a useful treatise on all the 
essentials of Oratory. To the young student it will prove a valuable- 
assistant, and the more advanced may derive profit from its pages.' 



HAYES & ZELL S SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS. 

From the Pennsylvania Inquirer and Courier. 

"One of the most elegant and useful pocket volumes that we have 
for a long time seen on our table ; and a work that, if we judge of 
it by its intrinsic merits, will be deserve'dly popular." 

St. Louis Evening News, May 26, 1854. 

"This work is intended for the use of schools, for which it is ad- 
mirably adapted. It contains instruction for the modulation and 
intonation of the voice, as well as for attitude, and gesticulation. 
Recitations from the best English authors form another attractive 
feature." 

Everdng Bulletin, Philadelphia, May 11, 1854. 

" The American Orator's Own Book, published by Hayes & Zell, 
contains a number of admirable directions for. the cultivation of a 
talent for public speaking, and a good selection from eminent Eng- 
iish and American orators, writers, and poets. It will be found 
very useful in schools." 



BLAIR'S LECTURES ON RHETORIC. 

{^University Edition.^) 

WITH MILLs's COPIOUS QUESTIONS AND ANALYSIS. 

The title of this work, "Blair's Lectures," is sufficient guarantee 
of its usefulness. It is so well known, and now so generally used 
in all our first colleges and academics, that any description or 
recommendation of its merits would be needless. It has been the 
text-book in the University of Edinburgh for upwards of fifty years. 
8vo., sheep, 557 pages. Price, ^1 75. 



BLAIR'S LECTURES ON ilHETORIC. 

(ABRIDGED, TflTH QUESTIONS.) 

IBmo., half-emhossed cloth. Price, 38 cents. 

This work is an abridgment of the above university edition of 
Blair, and intended for, and admirably adapted as, a preliminary 
to the larger edition. 



COLLOT'S 

PROGRESSIVE FRENCH 

SCHOOL SERIES. 



COMPLETE IN SIX VOLUMES, BEAUTIFULLY BOUND 
AND PRINTED ON FINE PAPER. 

18mo. Price 63 cts. each. 



The Subscribers, having completed the publication of Collot's Progres- 
sive Series of French School Books, respectfully recommend it to 
the attention of the Public at large, and particularly to the examination of 
Teachers and Parents. They confidently believe that the Six Volumes 
of which it consists, are amply sufficient for the attainment of proficien- 
cy , by the shortest route, in the Arts of Speaking, Reading and Writing 
the French LanguUge ; and that they form a more complete and econo- 
mical system of Elementary Manuals for the study of French, than has 
ever before been presented to the Public, Attention is invited to the 
following short Notices of their Objects, Plan of Construction, and Mode 
of Use. Specimen Pages of two of the Works; flattering Testimonials 
from well known Classical Teachers, and eminent Professors of the French 
Language ; and Critical Notices of the Public Press, have been annexed 

1. a II. 

COLLOT'S LEVIZAC'S FRENCH GRAMMAR AND 
EXERCISES. 

In this Grammar, the basis of which is Levizac's excellent Grammar, 
the valuable but not well arranged contents of that work have been re- 
duced to a natural order; while those parts of it which were either en- 
tirely out of place in a grammar, or were unintelligible to the juvenile 
ischolar, have oeen expunged. By this process, the size and price of the 
volume have been lessened materially, without the sacrifice of any infor- 
mation of the least practical value. 

The original matter in it consists of such improvements and modifica 
tions as have been recognized by the best modern authorities; and, in 
particular, of, 1. A Table of all the Irregular and Defective Verbs in 
the French Language, conjugated in all the tenses which are liable to 
irregularities; and, 2. A Terminational Vocabulary, whereby the Gen- 
der of every Noun may be promptly and certainly determined. The 
value of this Vocabulary, which is comprised in the short space of 12 
pages, may be conceived of, when it is confidently asserted that it 



COLLOT'S PROGRESSIVE 



would be of great use to natives of France, and that it relieves the pupil 
for the future from a labour which few have the courage to undertake, 
but wiiich has been recommended bj Cobbett, Boyer, and many other 
distinguished writers and teachers, viz. that he should go completely 
through the French Dictionary, and copy out all the nouns, affixing the 
gender to each. 

The Exercises have also been greatly amplified ; and the Inductive 
Method, throughout the Grammar, and particularly in the Exercises, 
lias been, as far as practicable, carefully pursued. 

KEY TO THE EXERCISES IN COLLOT'S LEVI- 
ZAC'S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 38 cts. 

This Key is intended to aid the Teacher, or Parent, who may not be 
master of the nicer difficulties of the French Language ; and also the self- 
taught Student. The Publishers hope that it will supply a deficiency 
which has long been felt ; and be particularly useful in those large por- 
tions of the country where, from the scattered condition of the popula- 
tion, highly qualified French teachers cannot be obtained, or where the 
.'Studies l)f the child are directed by the zealous and intelligent parent. 

III. a iir. 

COLLOT'S PROGRESSIVE PRONOUNCING AND 
INTERLINEAR FRENCH READER. In 2 vols. viz. : 

VOL. I. Collot's Progressive Pronouncixg French 
(Ieader ; on a Plan of Pronunciation, New, Simple and Eifec- 
iive : being a Course of Interesting and Instructive Lessons, 
selected from the Works of the best French Prose Writers and 
Poets, preceded by a Collection of Easy Fables. And, 

VOL. II. Collot's Progressive Interlinear French 
Reader; on Locke's Plan of Instruction : being a Key to " Col- 
lot's Pronouncing French Reader." 

These two Volumes, which are to be used in conjunction, are con- 
structed in an order of strictly progressive difficulty. The one is de 
%-.oted to Translation, the other to Pronunciation : which arrangement is 
deemed an improvement on the ordinary mode of comprising the distiDCt 
and independent objects of study, Translation and Pronunciation, in 
the same Volume, and on the same Page. 

The Interlinear French Reader contains a translation of all the 
Prose in the Pronouncing Reader, comprising about two-thirds of the lat- 
ter Volume. The Lessons commence with short and simple Fables, and 
proceed, by easy progression, to varied selections from the finest Prose 
writings in the French language. In making the translation, no paina 
nor thought was spared, to reconcile the conflicting requisitions of 
literalness and elegance of version ; and more success was met with 
in this attempt, than had been anticipated when the undertaking was 



FRENCH SCHOOL SERIES. 3 

commenced. When it was necessary to give both a literal and a 
sense translation, the sense was placed under the French, and the literal 
w,eaning of the word or words in a foot note. Grammatical Notes are 
given where they are required ; to which frequent allusions are subse 
quently made, as examples under them recur. The literal translations 
of Idiomatic expressions, and explanatory Grammatical Notes, become 
gradually more rare, however, as the Pupil advances ; and they cease 
altogether, when he is, or should be, prepared to proceed without any 
aid, except the translation in the Text. This of course presupposes ttiat 
he remembers and applies what he has learned in his previous progress. 

The Pronouncing French Reader consists of Four Parts. The first 
Three Parts contain the naked French Text of the Interlinear Reader, 
and consist entirely of Prose. The Fourth Part is devoted to Select 
Extracts, of progressive difficulty, from the best French Poets; which 
are preceded by a short Treatise on the Art of Reading French Poetry. 
As already stated, the assistance of a Translation terminates at the end of 
the Third Part of the Pronouncing Reader; and as, by this time, the Pupil, 
with the help of his Dictionary and Grammar, can understand any French 
of ordinary difficulty, the Treatise on Reading French Poetry, and the 
Explanatory Notes, in the Fourth Part, are given in French. 

The Pronouncing French Reader treats practically on Pronuncia- 
tion ; and, it is believed, has presented it to the Pupil in a manner which 
has not before been attempted. It contains the first effort which has 
ever been made, to communicate a knowledge of French Pronunciation 
on scientific principles. The proper pronunciation is not given, as has 
hitherto been done, in a separate line, and in barbarous spelling, which may 
easily so confuse the pupil as to lead him into habits of mis-spelling diffi- 
cult to break. In a short Introductory Treatise, a Table of all the Vowel 
Sounds of the French language, and their equivalents, or the nearest ap- 
proximation to them, in English sounds, is given ; and this Table is also 
placed at the head of each page in the First Part, after the manner, fami- 
liar to every one, of Walker's English Pronouncing Dictionary. When 
the proper pronunciation of any syllable in the Text is variant from 
its spelling, the correct sound is placed over it, in small characters ; from 
which, by a reference to the Table at the head of the page, the Pupil in- 
stantly finds its true pronunciation. In addition to this, the Pupil is ad- 
vised, in the Introduction or by Notes, of all cases in which the pronuncia- 
tion of the French consonants differs from that of the English ; all silent 
letters are put in the italic character ; and when two or more words are 
to be pronounced as if they are one word, they are connected by a mark 
thus ,_. Moreover, the first Fable in the Book contains an example of 
all the Vowel and Diphthongal sounds, and words of Difficult Pronun- 
ciation, in the French language. A complete mastery of this short fable 
will, therefore, enable the Student to pronounce every word he m;i.y 
meet with afterwards. In order to afford ample practice, the plan, thus 
briefly detailed, is continued throughout the First Part of the work. 

In the Second Part, the assistance in pronunciation is reduced to il^e 
indication of silent letters and connecting words, by means of the italic 
character, and the sign ^^. In the Third Part the connecting words only 
are pointed out. And in the Foiprth Part, all aids to pronunciation 
whatGoever are wittidrawn. 



collot's progressive 



TESTIMONIALS. 



To Messrs. Hayes & Zell, 

Publishers, Philadelphia. 

I have received your note of June 22d, and comply with pleasure to 
your request, for my opinion of Collot's Progressive French School 
Series. In my course of instruction for several years, in large and small 
classes, I have found it well adapted to the progress of my pupils ; and I 
can recommend it with confidence, as a complete course, and an excel- 
lent method of acquiring the knowledge of the French language. All 
parts of it are very well arranged : the plan of pronunciation; the rules 
for determining the gender of nouns; the tables of regular and defective 
verbs, are simple, concise, and practicable ; the exercises are well in- 
tended. The Dialogues and the reading books contain selections from 
the best authors; such as will improve the taste and convey both instruc- 
tion and entertainment. The Anecdotes, which are progressive, and 
bring to the mind of the student the most interesting facts of history, are 
well calculated, as a reciting book, to furnish subjects upon which he can 
express his ideas in his own way. 

I am, very truly, yours. 

V. DE AMARELLI, 
Professor of the University and Polyteclinic College of Pennsylvania. 

224 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, June 23d, 1854. 



Wilmington, Del, June 22d, 1854. 
Messrs. Hayes & Zell : 

Gentlemen — Your favor of the 17th inst., in which you ask my opinion 
of Collot's Progressive French Series, was duly received ; and, from 
a careful examination of the volume sent, I take pleasure in forwarding 
my testimony to their worth. Having been employed in teaching in this 
country for upwards of 16 years, I have had ample opportunity of ex- 
amining most of the scries of books in publication for the study of the 
French language ; but of them I can confidently state, that I have seen 
none possessing equal merit with Collot's French Series. With such 
views, I cheerfully recommend tiicm to the many who are anxious to ac- 



FRENCH SCHOOL SERIES. 



quire, in a moderate length of time, a knowledge of a language which 
forms an essential part of a liberal education. 

H. MAGNIN, A. M., 

A Graduate of the UniTersity of France. 



Having examined and tried Collot's Series of French Books, I can, 
most cheerfully, bear testimony to their efficacy and usefulness to both 
teacher and student of the French language. They consist of the follow- 
ing valuable works : 

1. French Grammar. — A real, and not a nominal, improvement of Le- 
vizac's Grammar. 

2. Pronouncing French Reader. — Composed of admirable selections, 
and a great auxiliary to any one who wishes to overcome soon that great 
difficulty of modern languages, the pronunciation. 

3. Interlinear French Reader ; being a key to the above, and indispen- 
sable to self-instruction. 

4. French Anecdotes and Questions. — A most excellent work, well 
adapted to the practice of French conversation. 

5. French Dialogues and Phrases. — Superior to any of the same kind. 
Unlike other books of phrases, it is very amusing and interesting. 

6. Key to the Exercises in the Grammar. — Intended also for self- 
instruction, and useful to many teachers. 

In conclusion, I will state that Mr. Collot's French books show him to 
be a French scholar of no common capacity, and of a standard greatly 
superior to the general run of writers of school-books. 

FRANCIS A. BREGY, 
Professor of the French Language and Literature in the Central High SchooL 
Philadelphia, June 1th, 1854. 



Messrs. Hayes & Zell : 

Gentlemen — I beg you will receive my thanks for the copies of " Col. 
lot's French Series," which you have done me the honor to present 
to me. 

I have made use of the "French Series" since I have been teaching 
in this city, and I take great pleasure in recommending it to all teachers 
and students of the French language, as the most valuable €ind useful 
work that I have yet met with. 

Your obedient servant, 

V. SEMELADIS. 

Philadelphia, June Mih, 1854. 



COLLOT'S PROGRESSIVE 



TESTIMONIALS OF TEACHERS. 



Philadelphia, November 20, 1838. 
Sir : 

I have examined witli attention the volumes constituting your Sen i 
of School Books, intended to enable Pupils to read, speak and write t^e 
French language. The first of these objects is attained by the help ef 
the Interlinear and the Pronouncing French Readers, which, with 
respect both to prose and poetry, seem to rae vv^ell adapted to their pur- 
pose. The second is accomplished by the aid of your Dialogues and 
Phrases, together \vith the progressive Anecdotes and Questions. 
While the third is effected by a diligent use of your edition of Levizac's 
Grammar, and the accompanying Exercises. As the method of Interli- 
near Translation has now been applied in this country for several years, 
not only to the French, but also to the German, Italian, Latin and Greek 
languages, it is believed that no commendation is required by the plan 
M^iich you have adopted in the construction of your Class Books. With 
these works in his hands, the diligent Student may accomplish much 
without the attendance of a Teacher; hxiiwith the assistance of a compe- 
tent instructor, there can be no excuse for failure, by a person of any 
age, if of ordinary capacity, to acquire, in a moderate length of time, a 
good practical knowledge and use of the French language, 
I eun, Sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

Mr a. G. Collot. WALTER R. JOHNSON. 



Philadelphia, Octoher 1, 1838. 
Dear Sir: 

I have closely examined the Series of Books which you have published 
for the use of those who teach or study the French language, and con- 
cluded in my opinion, which, as you know, is grounded upon the long 
experience that I have acquired as a Professor, both in France and this 
country, that they are calculated to answer fully the expectations of any 
who will peruse them, and especially your Grammar, which I consider 
as the best we have. 

Very respectfully, yours, 

Mr a. G. Collot. JAMES FOULHOUZE 



Philadelphia, October 27, 1838. 
Gentlemen : 

Mr Collet's Books have been used by himself, in my School, for more 
than a year. I have, therefore, bad the most ample means of testing 
their merits. And, without going into details with reference to each 



FRENCH SCHOOL SERIES. 



one, I do not hesitate to say that, in my opinion, these Six Volumes of 
Collot's Progressive French School Series, contain all that ele- 
mentary books can afford, to facilitate the learner in the acquisition of 
tlie French Language. 

B. P. HUNT, 



Philadelphia, September 20, 1838. 
Dear Sir : 

Your Series of Books, for the study of the French Language, I have 
introduced into my School. This, of course, I should not have done, 
did 1 not consider them the best with which I am acquainted. ^ 

Respectfully, yours, 
Mr a. G. Cullot. " C. D. CLEVELAND. 



Baltimore, JYovember 3, 1838. 
Professor Collot's Progressive French School Series, forming a 
compact and economical system of Text Books, having been successfully 
practised by me, 1 take pleasure in recommending it, as being very use- 
ful for the acquisition of the French Language. 

THOMAS J. BIZOUARD, 
Professor of the French Language at the University of Maryland, 
Academical Department. 



Baltimore, November 3, 1838. 
Messrs. Kay & Brother, of Philadelphia, having completed the publica- 
tion of Professor Collot's valuable Series of Books, for the use of Stu- 
dents of the French Language, 1 have introduced them in the different 
Schools where I am a teacher ; and I can recommend them as being very 
useful for the attainment of that Language. 

J. L. LA REINTRIE, 
Prof essor of French at Mount Hope College, 

Dr Cleveland' s Female Classical School 
Mr J. Jl. Fays Select Male School, 
Mrs De Butts's Female Academy. 
Misses Cottringer' s Female Academy. 



Baltimore, JVovember 6, 1838. 
Having for some time past made use of Mr Collot's Pronouncing and 
Interlinear French Reader, French Dialogues and Phrases, 
French Anecdotes and Questions, &c., I found this new System 
not only an ingenious way of leading the Pupil to acquire with ease and 
rapidity a correct Pronunciation of the French language, but also calcu- 



10 COLLOT'S PROGRESSIVE 

lated to render the Teacher's task less fatiguing, and that of the Student 
amusing and instructive, by the perusal of interesting Anecdotes, and 
elegant pieces of Prose and Poetry. I therefore consider it as a service, 
to recommend to my brother Professors, who have not yet used the 
■^.bove mentioned books, to put them, from the beginning, in the hands 
)f their Pupils. 

JOSEPH MICHARD, 
Professor of Languages, and French Teacher in several Institutions. 



Pittsburgh, October 27, 1838. 

GK^fTLEMEN: 

In reply to your inquiry as to my opinion of Mr Collot's Series of 
French School Books, published by you, I take great pleasure in for- 
warding my testimony to their merits. 

I consider them to comprise the only Complete Course of Study of the 
French Language, as it is read, written and spoken, that I have seen; 
and most of those published in the United States have passed under my 
eye. 

The'' Grammar and Exercises." prepared on the basis of Levizac's 
work, contains all that is necessary for Students, while it excludes much 
that was perplexing and useless in the original. In addition to which, 
it is constructed on a systematic and oi'derly plan of arrangement. It is 
remarkable for comprising a Treatise on the Gender of French Nouns, 
which, for the first time in any grammar, and in the short space of 
Twelve pages, furnishes rules for the ascertainment of the Gender by the 
Termination, which are entirely complete, and absolutely certain. It 
must have cost the Author great labour to produce it. I may also men- 
tion a new Arrangement of all the Irregular and Defective Verbs in the 
French language, which is equally remarkable for its simplicity, perspi- 
cuity and brevity. These two features alone would place Collot's Levi- 
zac's Grammar, in my opinion, above any other grammar that I have 
seen The Exercises, under the various Rules, are abundant, and are 
made extremely clear to the apprehension of the learner. 

The ''Key to the Exercises in the Grammar," in a separate vo- 
lume, supplies a deficiency hitherto much felt, and will be invaluable to 
the Teacher or Parent who may not be master of the nicer difficulties of 
the French language, and also to the self-taught Student. It will be 
much prized in our extensive and growing west and south-west, where 
highly qualified French teachers are difficult to be obtained. 

The Selections in the " Pronounci.vg French Reader" are made 
from the best French Prose Writers and Poets, and afford specimens of 
equal and varied excellence in style. I need not tell you how much 
preferable such a book is thus rendered to one which is confined wholly 
t.) one Author, and that a Prose Author — as, for instance, the Telemaque 
of Fenelon. The system of Pronunciation, from which it derives its 
name, is simple, intelligible, easy and correct; and, by placing the true 
sound, in smaller type, over the syllable, when the pronunciation va- 
nes from the spelling (instead of spelling all the syllables of every word, 
as has hitherto been the case, according to the sound), prevents all lia- 



FREiNCH SCHOOL SERIES. 11' 

bility to false orthography, which was one of the greatest objections to 
the old method. [See ante, pp. 6, 7.] The English translation in the 
" Interlinear French Reader," which is the Key to the " Pronoun- 
cing Reader," and forms a separate volume, happily blends the free and 
literal systems, and is withal entirely correct. Roth these volumes are 
admirably adapted to the purposes o^ self -instruction. 

The " French Dialogues and Phrases" are composed of such 
sentences as will render the Pupil familiar with French Conversation 
and Idioms ; are well chosen as to subjects ; and have the great advan- 
tage of being cast in a dramatic form, by means of which, the learner, as 
he repeats them alternately with his fellow-scholar or his teacher, almost 
imagines himself engaged in actual conversation. The " French Anec- 
dotes AND Questions" are extremely interesting, varied and instructive, 
as a Reciting, Reading and Question Book; and when used in conjunc- 
tion with the " Dialogues and Phrases," according to the Author's 
plan, they fulfil a most important part in facilitating the acquisition of 
the art of French Conversation and Conversational Narration, 

The use of these books has been rendered easy, and available to every 
one, by the full and clear rules and explanations which the Author has 
given in the Introduction to each volume. 

I have used Collot's Books in my classes wherever I have been en- 
gaged in teaching the French language, if I could obtain them. They 
have been introduced, at my instance, into the Louisiana College, tlii 
first educational institution in the state of Louisiana, and also into vari 
ous Academies •. and are rapidly making their way in New Orleans, an< 
the CGuatey surrounding this important centre. „ The favourable opin 
ions there entertained of them by teachers, necessarily well acquainted 
with the French language, and judges of the best books for communicat- 
ing a knowledge of it, should be deemed by you as strong testimony tc 
tne. r merits. 

I remain, very respectfully, yours, 

J. E. BARBEZAT, 
l?rqfessor of the French Languagi, 



12 



COLLOT'S PROGRESSIVE 



CRITICAL NOTICES. 



ColloV.s Levizac's French Grainmar and Exercises, and Key to 
the Exercises in the Grammar. 



Messrs James Kay, Jun. & Brother 
have just published two very vahiable 
books by Mr Collot, favourably knovt^n 
as a most skilful teacher of the French 
language, and not less so by the various 
treatises he has written in aid of those 
who are engaged in acquiring that impor- 
tant part of "modern education. The first 
is entitled " ColloVs Lnntac's Progres- 
sive Frev.ch Grammar.," and the other a 
^^ Key to the Exercises in the Grammar j^^ 
and both are marked by the same thorough 
knowledge of the subject, the same judg- 
ment in making rules, and the same fa- 
cility in applying tliem, that have distin- 
guished his former labours. Some idea 
of the prevailing features of these volumes 
may be gathered from the following ex- 
tract from the Author's preface. 

"He has prepared, from actual exami- 
nation of the Dictionary, an Alphabetical 
Vocabulary of a!l the Masculine and Fe- 
minine Terminations in the French lan- 
guage; and has placed in one Table all 
the Masculine, and in another ail the Fe- 
minine Terminations, with the exceptions 
injuxta-position. The whole is comprised 
in the short space oi Iwdce pages ; and by 
far the greater portion have none, or at 
most but two exceptions. The Student 
has therefore presented to him in a small 
compass, a mass of knowledge which is 
entirely within the reach of a mind of the 
most ordinary ability ; and he will be in- 
excusable, should he fail to avail himself 
of it. 

" The Exercises have been made very 
copious ; and exemplifj', in a progressive 
order of difficulty, all the niceties of the 
French language. In many instances in 
these Exercises, the English and FrencTi 
might have been made to conform more 
literally to each other ; but it was deemed 
of importance to preserve the peculiarities 
of each language, so that the scholar, by 
comparing them, might acquire a practical 
familiarity with French idiomatic expres- 
sions, and also learn how to express those 
of his own in correct French." — Saturday 
Jfews. 



Messrs Kay & Brother have published 
two French works, which are worthy the 
Siltention of teacliers and parents.. Tiie 



first and largest is, " Progressive French 
Grammar and Exercises, on the basis of Le- 
vizac's French Gh-avunar, hy A. G. Collot.''^ 
This Grammar claims the merit of novelty 
and excellence in arrangement, and is 
worthy the credit which iMr Collot has 
acquired as a Teacher and Author. 

The second is a '■'■Key to the Exercises in 
CoUot^s Lcvizac's French Grammar," a 
proper pendant for the first named work. 

Mr Collot has been very fortunate in his 
school books, and deserves the patr-onage 
of those who have occasion for French 
works of primary instruction. — U. S. Ga 
zcttc. 



Collofs Lcvizac's French Grammar and 
Exercises. — This work is by A. G. Collot, 
Professor of the French language, well 
known as a successful Teacher, and *the 
Author of several useful works to facili- 
tate the labours of the Student. The pr-e- 
sent publication is well calculated to be 
extensively useful. — Pennsyboanian 



This must be a valuable book to the 
student in French. Collot's books are ge- 
nerally preferred by our Teachers. — Com^ 
mercial Herald. 



Collates Leiuzac^s French Grammar and 
Exercises. — Messrs James Kay, Jun. &. 
Brother have just published a most val- 
uable work under the above title, toge- 
ther with a Key to the French Exercises. 
The volume is arranged by Mr A. G. 
Collot, of this city, on the basis of Le- 
vizac's Grammar, and it also comprises 
a Table of Irregular and Reflective Verbs, 
and another of the Genders of Nouns, 
ITased on their Terminations, on an entire- 
ly original plan. We have examined the 
work throughout, and have no hesitatiori 
in affirming that, for a lucid and compre- 
hensive brevity, and a remarkably facile 
method of introducing scholars to the ma- 
chinery of the French language, it is hardly 
snr-passed, if indeed it be equalled, by any 
similar publication. 

We have read the Author's views ag 
given in the Preface to the Grammar. We 
fully a^refl with Jiim, and are of opinion 



FRENCH SCHOOL SERIES. 



13 



that he has conferred a benefit upon all 
who are desirous of learning the most 
courtly and conversational language of 
Europe, both by the clear an-angement of 
his Grammar, and the superiority of his 
Exercises. The Key will be found re- 
markably useful to parents and Teachers. 
The publishers' price is low, and we cor- 
dially recommend "Collot's Grammar and 
Exercises" for general adoption, both in 
sclyols and families. — Pennsylvania In- 
quirer add Courier. 



We have already had occasion to notice 
the excellent French School Books of Mr 
A. G. Collotj an eminent Professor of the 



French Language and Literature in our 
city. We observe that he has receiith 
added to his series a new and improved 
Progressive French Grammar and Exercises, 
on the basis of Levizac's Prench Oravnnar, 
We are most happy to see a French Gram ■ 
mar on the simple and classical plan ot 
Levizac, edited by an able scholar, and 
afforded at a decent price. Wanostroclit, 
the one in popular use, is a complete wil- 
derness, without plan or arrangement, 
and is only tolerated for its copious Exer- 
cises. The Exercises in Mr Collcf/s 
Grammar are preferable, however, be- 
cause they are much more judiciously ar- 
ranged. Teachers cannot go amiss in 
using this Grammar. — Weekly Messenger. 



Collofs Pronouncing and Interlinear French Reader. 



Prench School Books. — Messrs Kay & 
Biother have published a series of books 
by Collot, intended for the aid of those 
who are endeavouring to acquire the 
French language. — Two of the Series, 
namely, Collot's Progressive Pronounc- 
ing French Reader, and Collot's Pro- 
gressive Interlinear French Reader, 
are lying before us. They appear to be 
admirably calculated to assist the English 
student to acquire a knowledge of the 
French language, and its correct pronun- 
ciation, a matter so difficult to all. Col- 
lot's books are generally preferred, we 
believe, by teachers, and are corning ra- 
pidly into general use. Ihey have this 
advantage, that they simplify the lan- 
guage, and render it as plain and acquir- 
able as it is susceptible of being rendered, 
and may tlierefore be commended to learn- 
ers. — Commercial Herald. 



Collot's Pronouncing and Interlinear 
French Reader. — Messrs Kay & Brother 
have published two volumes that «re full 
of good matter for the teacher and the 
learner of French. One is the "Progres- 
sive Interlinear French Reader," 
which, besides the interlinear translation, 
Contains a grammatical commentary and 
analytic notes. The other is " A Pro- 
gressive Pronouncing French Read- 
er." The author has arranged his text 
so as to make the acquisition of pronun- 
ciation appe ireasy. The figures referring 
words to their definite sounds must aid 
•the scholar desirous of learning. We 
commend these two volumes to the 



schools, as auxiliaries that will be highl) 
approved. — United States Gazette. 



Messrs Kay and Brother have recentlj 
published two neatly printed elementary 
French books, compiled with much in- 
dustry and skill by Mr Collot of this city, 
for the use of English learners of the lan- 
guage. One consists of very well chosen 
extracts from various authors, with an 
interlinear translation and copious expla- 
natory notes, rhetorical hints, &c. : and- 
the other is formed of the same Frencli 
matter, but set forth in such a manner by 
various signs as to aid the pupil in pro- 
nunciation and accentuation. We judge 
that these elementary works will be found 
very useful to the Student, as the plan on 
wliich they are based has been approved 
hy long experience. — J^alional Gazotte. 



ColloVs Pronouncing and Interlinear 
French Reader.— Messrs Kay & Brother, 
Booksellers, have just published two 
works for the use of Students of the 
French language, which cannot prove 
otherwise than highly valuable both to 
Teachers and Pupils. 

One is the "Progressive Interlinear 
French Reader, on Locke's plan of in- 
struction," being a course of interesting 
and instructive lessons in French litera- 
ture, selected from the works of the most 
eminent prose writers, and preceded by a 
collection of easy fables, together with an 
interlinear English translation, a gramma- 
tical commentary, &,c. The plan upov» 



14 



COLLOT'S PROGRESSIV^E 



which this work is constructed has long 
been considered as the most natural, and 
therefore the surest method of imparting 
a knowledge of languages; and. the pro- 
duction is arranged with much skill and 
judgment. 

The above mentioned volume is accom- 
panied by another entitled the "Progres- 
siTE Proxou>'ci:ng French Eeader," 
upon a new, simple and effective plan, 
which we should judge, from examina- 
tion, well calculated to facilitate the la- 
bours of the student, and to answer the 
purpose for which it is intended. 

Both these works are from the pen of Mr 
Collot, professor of the French language, 
and are the results of much observation 
and experience in the task of instruction. 
They have met with great approbation 
from' those best qualified" to judge of their 
merit, and we doubt not will be very ac- 
ceptable to the many who are anxious to 
acquire a knowledge of a langiiage which 
foiins an essential part of a liberal educa- 
tion. — Pennsylcanian. 



CoUot's Pronouncing and. Interlinear 
French Reader^ in two volumes. This is 
a new school book for teaching French, 
and for that purpose a valuable publica- 
tion We do not hesitate 

to pronounce this a valuable work for the 
learner of French, a language now almost 
indispensable. — Public Leger. 



ColloVs Interlinear French Reader. — 
Messrs. Kay & Brother have just pub- 
lished a volume under the above title, 
from the pen of A. G. Collot, French 
teacher of this city. We have examined 
several anecdotes and extracts in this 
work with care, it being particularly re- 
commended to our notice.from the circum- 
stance of Locke's Plan of Instruction hav- 
ing been adopted by Mr Collot, as his guide 
and model. We have ever been favourable 
to interlinear literaland-free translations 
being introduced in teaching foreign lan- 
guages to youth ; for we deem them by far 
fhe most easy and powerful assistants, 
both to the memorj-, style and " construc- 
tion" of the scholar, that the wit of man 
has devised. So strong is our conviction 
of this fact, that we do not hesitate to 
assert, that judiciously selected interlinear 
books, studied conjunctively with a sim- 
ple and easv grammar, afford an infallible 
method of learning different languages.. 

Collot's Ixteri-ixear 

Reader is capital. In translation and 

arrangement it is all that can be desired. 

.... We say to all who wish 



to study French with success — Duy Coi,- 
lot's Inteei-ixear Fresch Reader!— 
Pennsylcania Inquirer and Courier. 



CoUot's Pronouncing French Reader. — ^ 
No sooner had we noticed Mr Collot's* 
I^rxERLisEAR Reader, than we received 
from the publishers "The Progressive 
Pro:?ou:scixg Fre>'ch Reader," by the 
same author, and intended as a compa- 
nion to the former. The plan of this Key 
to the Pronunciation of French is new, sim- 
ple and effective. Each page of the first 
part contains a key to the different sounds 
of the vowels, much alter the plan of 
Walker's English Dictionary : and in the 
letter-press of each page, this key is re- 
ferred to by figures, signs or letters, ad- 
mirably arranged and adapted to impress 
the proper pronunciation on the student's 
mind. It progresses from easy fables to 
extracts from the finest compositions in 
the French language, both of poetry and 
prose — thus elevating the mind by lorty 
and moral sentiments, as well as affording 
a thorough knowledge of French orthoepy. 
We have no hesitation in recording our 
opinion that the plan of this work, fol- 
lowed up for a single month, would be at- 
tended with the most encouraging suc- 
cess. — Pennsylvania Inquirer and Courier. 



James Kay, Jun. & Brother have just 
published two additional volumes of Col- 
lot's Progressive French School Series. 
The first of these is the " PRo>-ocj<cixa 
Frexch Reader," consisting of brief ex- 
tracts from various standard works, in 
which, by the aid of certain signs, print- 
ing the silent letters in italics, a running 
standard of pronunciation at the top of 
each page, and other auxiliaries, the stu- 
dent is enabled to acquire a knowledge of 
French pronunciation, without the direct 
instrumentality of a teacher. The second, 
the "Ixterlixear Frexch Reader," 
1 which is a Key to the first, is on the plan 
of literal-and-free translation, after the 
manner of Locke, with copious notes. 
The value of this method has been tested 
I by long experience ; and it is now approv- 
I eil and practised by the most eminent and 
; successful teachers. The selections com- 
j prise a variety of fables, and extracts 
from the best and most classic writers of 
France. 

The acquisition of the French language 
is now regarded as necessary to police 
education." In all the higher classes of 
schools it forms a part of the fundamental 
instruction; insteadof being looked upon 
as a mere accomplishment, which the pu 



FRENCH SCHOOL SERIES. 



15 



pil may or may not acquire at pleasure. 
Whatever, therefore, tends to facilitate the 
progress of the learner must be considered 
ab entitled to approbation. Of this kind 
is the series of books prepared by Mr Col- 
lot. These volumes are well calculated 
to promote the object at which they aim. 
They gradually lead the student through 
llie various stages of pronunciation, trans- 
lation and construction, and enable him 
to overcome the difficulties both of speak- 
ing and writing the language The 

works of Mr Collot are of unusual advan- 
tage both to the teacher and learner. They 
lessen the labours of the former, and they 
add greatly to the benefits of the latter — 
Saturday JSTews. 



Messrs. Kay & Brother have just pub- 
lished one of the most valuable works for 
the use of students of the French language, 



that we have examined for several years 
It is entitled the "Progressive Inteks.i- 
NEAR French Reader," and is from the 
mind and pen of Mr Collot of this city, who 
had previously made himself favourably 
known as an author. Any individua( 
who facilitates the study of this very 
elegant and conversable language, con- 
fers an important benefit on the public, 
We are of opinion that Mr Collot has 
eminently succeeded in effecting this 
desirable object, in the work before us 
for by it he has certainly deprived the 
French student of at least one half his 
usual labour. If practised conjunctively 
with the Grammar, no system can be moi e 
powerful than the one adopted by Mr Col- 
lot ; and when the next volume, "The 
Pronouncing French Reader," issues 
from the press [published since this no- 
tice], we are of opinion that it will be 
complete. — Saturday Evening Post. 



Collofs French Dialogues and Phrases, and ColloVs French 
Anecdotes and Questions. 

Messrs. Kay & Brother have published 
two works in French, prepared by Mr A. 
G. Collot, for those who are acquiring a 
knowledge of that language, which are 
valuable for their adaptation. The first is 
a collection of Dialogues and Phrases; 
and the Second a Collection of Anecdotes 
with Questions in French on the same. 
They are both useful works, but the for- 
mer is especially adapted to facilitate the 
acquisition of the French language, and 
particularly to remove the difficulties of 
speaking it. The works are worthy the 
attention of teachers and students.— tVa- 
led States Gazette. 



Collofs French Dialogues and Phrases. 
— How frequently do we find in society 
individuals who have probably studied 
the French tongue successfully for years, 
but who, having only learned to read 
and translate, are by no means competent 
to converse in that language. The cause 
of this defectisevidently the want of such 
books as are calculated to put us in pos- 
session of studies relating to the ordinary 
affairs of every day life. To supply the 
deficiency, and a lamentable one it is, we 
have seen no work for years past, that 
will bear a comparison with CoUot''s 
French Dialogues AND Phrases. They 
treat on almost everv domestic and social 



subject, in an easy, agreeable and familiar 
style ; and are calculated to leave an im- 
pression on the minds of pupils, similar '■.o 
that produced by conversation with a 
friend. The familiar idioms of the French 
language — those little elegances for which 
it is so eminently distinguished — are most- 
ly introduced in these dialogues ; and we 
take pleasure in remarking, that while 
the works of Mr Collot, which we have 
previously .noticed, are admirably adapted 
to instruct students in a knowledge of Con- 
struction, Pronunciation and Reading— 
the little volume now before us, is equally 
adapted to teaching the art of Conversa- 

tion Collot's Dialogues and 

Phrases, by teaching so many words and 
Phrases in common use, and of constant 
occurrence, will not fail to prove a pow- 
erful assistant in the practice of speaking 
French. The work has just reached a 
thi7-d edition. — Pennsylvania Inquirer and 
Courier. 



Collot's French .Anecdotes and Questions. 
—Messrs James Kay, .lun. & Brother are- 
publishing a Series of Six books, com- 
piled, written credited by MrCollotofthia 
city— that will be of themselves sufticient 
to enable students to acquire a very tole- 
rable proficiency in the French language. 
We have already noticed one of these 



16 COLLOT'S PROGRESSIVE FRENCH SCHOOL SERIES. 



works, and have iiovv before us a volume 
of " Anecdotes and CIuestions," writ- 
ten in easy style, and intended as a pro- 
gressive Reciting book for schools ; and 
especially to be used in conjunction 
with Collot's French Dialogues and 
Phrases. The best proof we can adduce 
of the excellence of this work, is the fact 
of its having reached a third edition. The 
anecdotes are well chosen, being chiefly 
illustrative of striking and important parts 
of history ; while the questions at the end 
of the work, are eminently calculated to 
elicit answers that will impress the French 
language on the reader's memory. This 
volume is worthy to be classed among the 
chief of those works which relieve the 
rrryness of lingual study, and lead the 
pupil to a perfect knowledge of a foreign 
tongue, by agreeable and almost impercep- 
tible raeaxis.-^ Pennsylvania Inquirer and 
Courier. 



Collot's French Dialogues and Phrases ; 
and Collot's French Anecdotes and Ques- 
tions. 

.The former of these volumes contains a 
series of Dialogues, and a collection of 
Familiar Phrases, well adapted to the pur- 
pose of fitting the pupil who is learning 



French, for conversing in that language. 
The every day topics of conversation are 
discussed in a lively style in the Dialogues, 
and the Phrases are those in most common 
use. 

The collection of Anecdotes contained 
in the other volume, not accompanied by 
a translation, is intended to form a sequel 
to the Dialogues, and to advance the pupil 
still further in the art and mystery of 
French conversation. The Anecdotes are 
to be read carefully, so that the student 
may recollect the incidents , but not com- 
mitted to memory. At recitation, the stu- 
dent narrates the anecdotes with the best 
French he can command at the moment. 
Professor Collot's method is a good one, 
and has been successfully practised by the 
Author, by M. Gardel, and by other emi- 
nent French teachers in this city. 

The books are already extensively used 
here. They should be known and appre- 
ciated wherever French is taught in tlia 
country. — The Schoolmaster, edited by 
JOHN FROST, 
W, R. JOHNSON, 
J. m. KEAGY, 
W. RUSSELL, 
J. B. WALKER, 
Principals of Classical Schools^ in the citf 
of Philadelphia. 



Kay's Infant and Primary School Readers and Dejiners. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 

These Books are recommended to Instructors and Parents by 
the following features : 

Kay's Infant and Primary School Reader and Speller, 

No. 1, contains no word of more than Three Letters, and 
comprises all the words of Two and Three Letters in the English 
language. 

No Syllable occurs in it, or the two subsequent volumes, 
which is not a complete word. 

The Lessons are strictly, and by very gradual steps, progressive. 

Each single Object occurring in the Lessons is represented 
by a large and handsome Engraving. 

All the Words are collected in Spelling Columns, separately, 
and are classed under their vowel sounds according to Walker's 
Standard — the name-sounds first; so as to teach the child a 
correct Pronunciation in connexion with Orthography. 

Initiatory Models for DRAVii^iNG, on the Slate or Paper, are 
also furnished, to form a taste for Design, and to amuse and 
occupy the time of the child in the intervals of his Lessons. 

The Author recommends, as a great economy in time and a 
delightful method of instruction, that the child should be taught 
to read as far as the 29th page of the book, before he is made 
acquainted with the letters, or rather the names of the letters, 
of the alphabet. This, however, is left to the discretion of the 
instructor: the book is suited to either method of tuition. 

I Kay's Infant and Primary School Reader and 'Definer, 

No. 2, comprises lessons in Prose and Poetry in Words of One 
Syllable only, from the easiest to the most difficult in the lan- 
guage; with numerous Engravings CMrefully adapted to the Text. 

The Lessons in Drawing are carried on by numerous pro- 
gressive Models. 

In the Spelling Department the words to be spelled are Mo- 
nosyllables, accompanied by Definitions also in words of One 

(235) 



Kay's Infant and Primary School Readers and Definers. 

SELLABLE ; and the Pronunciation conforms to Walker, and makes 
use of his Notation. 

Exercises in Writing are also given, to be copied on the 
Slate, initiatory to a more systematic study of the art. Besides 
which, all the words of the Spelling Lessons are repeated in the 
margin in the writing character ; the copying of which on the 
Slate will ground the Orthography in the mind of the child, and 
show him its practical value. The child thereby will also be 
taught to read manuscript. 

Kay's Infant and Primary School Reader and Definer, 

No. 3, consists of Lessons in Prose and Poetry in words of 
not more than Two Syllables from the easiest to the most diffi- 
cult ; with numerous Pictorial Embellishments. 

The Lessons in Drawing are continued still further. 

The Spelling, Defining and Pronouncing pages consist, and 
thus constitute a Dictionary, of the Words which occur in the 
preceding Reading Lessons ; the Definitions of which are given 
also in Dissyllables. 



Here the Series closes ; as the Author conceives that the 
Pupil who has thoroughly studied these three little volumes, 
will readily master any volume which a sound discretion would 
subsequently place in his hands. 

To those who seek to encourage a familiarity with the Anglo- 
Saxon portion of our language, these books will be a desideratum ; 
as, with rare exceptions, all the words which have been used in 
them are Saxon in their derivation, and constitute therefore the 
staple of that noble language which is destined to be the mother 
tongue of by far the greater part of this vast continent. 

These volumes are remarkable for beauty and strength of 
Binding and Paper ; elegance and plainness of Typography ; and 
frequency and appropriateness of Embellishments. 

Teachers and Parents are invited to call and examine them ; 
and are recommended to peruse the Prefaces, for a detailed 
statement of their peculiar features. They will also be fur- 
nished with a Prospectus expressing at large the opinions of 
our most eminent Teachers, and enlightened Public Journalists. 

(236) 



HAYES & ZELT/S SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS. 



NOTICES 0¥ THE PRESS. 



FROM AN EDITQRiAL NOTICE IN THE NEW YORK TRIBUNE, 

Septemher Uth, 1854. 

"A new issue of this valuable series for primary instruction, in 
reading-, will afford an occasion for professional teachers, who have 
not already met with the work, to become acquainted with its rare 
merits. It is recommended by several original features ; among' 
these stands foremost its strictly progressive character. The first 
part contains no words of more than three letters, and comprises all 
the words of two and three letters in the English language. This 
fact alone shows the extreme care with which the lessons have been 
prepared, and supposes an extraordinary patience and skill on the 
part of the compiler. Another important feature is the use that is 
made of pictorial illustrations. Every single object occurring in 
the course is represented by a large and attractive engraving. In 
the second part we have a collection of readings in prose and poetry, 
in words of one syllable only, from the easiest to tlie most difficult in 
the language. The third part contains no word of more than two 
syllables. Exercises in writing and initiatory models for drawing, 
intended to form a taste for design, and to occupy the pupils in the 
intervals of study, accompany each part. A course of spelling, de- 
fining, and pronouncing lessons is given, forming a complete diction- 
ary of the w^ork, all the definitions of vs^hich are dissyllables. Seldom 
have such admirable judgment and refined taste been devoted to the 
composition of a -work in any branch of primary education as are 
conspicuous throughout this unique series. The comprehensive cha- 
racter of its contents, the originality of its plan, and the skill of its 
execution, challenge the scrutiny of teachers ; and we are confident 
that no intelligent educator can examine its claims witliout deeming 
our commendation quite too faint." 



Kaxfs Infant and Primary School Readers and Dejiners. 



Excerpts from Notices hy the Press. 



We fearlessly commend these 
books to the notice of Parents, 
Teachers, School Directors, and 
all interested in the subject of 
Primary Education. — Amer. Sen- 
tinel. 

We would call the especial 
attention of Parents and Teachers 
of young children to these books. 
— National Gazette. 

We pronounce the plan good, 
and the execution excellent. — 
. TJ. S. Gazette. 

The arrangement is simple, 
natural and efficient, and the first 
volume suited to the early dawn 
of infancy. — Inquirer. 

We are bound to consider these 
as the best set of Primary books 
yet issued. — Metcalfe's Star. 



We do not see how it is possi- 
ble to prepare a more admirable 
system for the purpose intended. 
It appears to have been compiled 
by a master handc . — Saturday 
Courier. 

This Series is beautifully exe- 
cuted So various and 

comprehensive a series, and one 
so cleverly got wp, has not before 
made its appearance. — Messenger. 

Mr J. Orville Taylor, of New 
York, so well known as the zea- 
lous and eloquent advocate of 
National Education, has given 
these books his strong approval, 
and recommends them, in prefe- 
rence to all others, in his Public 
Lectures. 



Excerpts from Critiques hy Teachers. 



The following Excerpts from the Testimonials of Teachers now in the pos- 
session of the Publishers, are printed in exteiiso, with the names and resi- 
dences of the gentlemen, in a Prospectus which will be given to all who may 
apply for it. 



" I have been exceedingly grati- 
fied by a perusal of them I 

consider your books superior to 
any now in use." 

"I believe them to be much 
better adapted for the purpose, 
than any work with which I am 
acquainted." 



" Both the plan and arrange- 
ment I highly approve." 

" The Series is, in my opinion, 
the best that has fallen under my 
notice." 

" I consider it the best work for 
the purpose that I have seen." 

" I beheve them to be remark- 
(237^ 



Kaifs Infant and Primary School Readers and Definers. 



ably well calculated for the in- 
struction of the beginner." 

"I find in them a progressive 
and well-chosen series of lessons, 
happily adapted to the capacity 
of young learners." 

" I believe them to be better 
calculated to expedite the educa- 
tion of children than any works 
that have come under my notice." 

" I feel no heshation in recom- 
mending it [the Series] as the best 
work for promoting the object in- 
tended with which I am acquaint- 
ed." 

" Kay's Infant and Primary 
School Series appears to me to 
be a work in every respect adapted 
to the wants of children who are 
just entering on the study of writ- 
ten language In these little 

volumes, words are truly the signs 
of ideas. Here the child may not 
only be taught to read with faciUty, 
but, almost unaided, to under- 
stand what he reads So nu- 
merous and important are the ad- 
vantages presented to both teacher 
and pupil, that a more extended 
cquaintance with the work can- 
not fail to secure its general adop- 
tion in Primary Schools." 

"I have most carefully read 
over and examined ' Kay's Infant 
and Primary School Series,' and 
have no hesitation in saying they 
are most admirably adapted for 
their intended and professed ob- 
ject." 

"Some of its features are as 
novel as they are valuable ; and it 
combines more, for the size and 
frice, than any thing of the kind 



which has fallen under my no- 
tice." 

" I have looked through the Se- 
ries with great satisfaction. The 
progressive theory which you have 
adopted is excellently suited to 
lead on the young mind by sure 
and not too laborious steps. The 
carrying out of the plan is gene- 
rally successful." 

" I consider them, in all points, 
to be superior to any books for 
the like purpose with which I am 
acquainted." 

" I take pleasure in pronouncing 
on them a most favourable opin- 
ion better adapted to the 

purpose for which they were de- 
signed, than any other school 
book with which I am fami- 
liar." 

" To Teachers of Primary 
Schools this Series will be a valu- 
able auxihary The hope is 

cordially expressed, that the enter- 
prise of the Publishers may be 
rewarded according to the me- 
rits of the work alone, which, in 
the opinion of the Subscriber, will 
amply repay them." 

" I confidently pronounce theiti 
superior to any books of the kind 
I have ever seen." 

" I am entirely satisfied of their 
superiority to any books having 
a similar purpose, with which I 
am acquainted." 

"I have had actual proof of 
their practical utility in creating 
an interest in the volatile minds 
of children, and securing their at- 
tention On the whole, not 

to be tedious, I most heartily ap- 
(238) 



Kay's h\fant and Primary School Readers and Dejiners. 



prove the plan, and recommend 
the adoption of your Series." 

" Esteeming it decidedly the 
best elementary work which I 
have seen, I hope it will be gene- 
rally introduced into the schools 
for which it is designed." 

" I beg leave to say that I have 
not met with any book of the kind 
so well adapted to the capacities 
of young children." 

" I should predict many benefits 
will result from the general in- 
troduction of these works into 
schools, in which, I trust, my own 
will share." 

" Having critically examined 
these beautiful little works, I 
cheerfully recommend them to 
teachers." 

"I have no hesitation in pro- 
nouncing them to be by far the 
best books of the kind for young 
persons in our language." 

" Having used them, I am con- 
vinced that every one who will 
give them a trial, will find them 
to interest their pupils, and ad- 
vance their progress, more than 
any thing of the kind that has yet 
appeared." 

" Upon the whole, I am con- 
strained to believe it to be the best 
work of the kind with which I am 
acquainted." 

•'I consider the plan well calcu- 
lated to bring forward the younger 
class of Scholars. Accordingly, I 
have introduced it into my schools." 

"Parents and Teachers who 
wish for books both attractive and 
interesting, will find these tc be 
just, what they require." 



" The designer of 'Kay's Se- 
ries' has produced a work, in my 
opinion, superior, in very many 
respects, to the works, of those 
who have gone before him." 

" They are, in my judgm.ent, 
better, much better calculated for 
the purpose for which they are 
intended, than all put together 
that have preceded them ; and I 
trust that the public will join me 
in this opinion." 

" I should have no hesitancy in 
at once placing them in the hands 
of beginners, in preference to all 
others." 

" I have carefully examined 
them I consider them ex- 
tremely well adapted to improve 
those for whom they are in- 
tended." 

"The design is excellent, and has 
been executed most successfully." 

" I consider them exceedingly 
well adapted to the purposes of 
Primary education." 

" I have carefully examined 
' Kay's Series,' and feel no hesi- 
tation in saying that I consider 
them superior to any series of the 
kind now extant." 

" I have just finished a careful 
examination of ' Kay's' Series,' 
and rarely, if ever, have I met 
with a work for children which 
made so favourable an impression 
on my mind. The author seems 
to possess the happy art of con- 
verting what was deemed labour 
to pastime, and pain to pleasure. 
.... Henceforth children may be 
taught to speak their first words 
from his books. The author has, 
(239) 



Kay's Infant and Primary School Readers and Befiners. 



in my judgment, discovered and 
adopted the true simplicity of na- 
ture. I can but regard its publi- 
cation as an era in American edu- 
cation — indeed in the English 
language." 

" I have diligently examined 
' Kay's Series,' and think it su- 
periorly vv^ell adapted to the im- 
provement of the infant mind." 

" I have given them as full an 
examination as time and circum- 
stances would permit ; sufficient, 
however, to satisfy myself of their 
intrinsic merits, and entire adapt- 
ation to the class of students for 
which they are intended." 

" The theory of teaching writ- 
ten language, as exemplified in 
' Kay's Progressive Series' of 
Reading Books, is, in my opmion, 
the true one ; and the practice 
upon it must lead to the happiest 
issues. It is nature's method of 
teaching written language. I shall 
lose no time in introducing them 
into my school." 

" I have examined them with 
attention, and believe them to be 
quite superior to any thing of the 
kind, for the purpose intended, 
which has met my view." 

" I conceive them to be the 
best, of the kind, with which I 
am acquainted, and intend using 
the^n in my school." 

" I feel no hesitation in saying 
that they are decidedly better 
adapted for training the Infant 
mind, than any work with which 
I am acquainted." 

" The admirable manner in 



which they are ' gotten up,' the 
introduction of the Script charac- 
ters, and the Elementary Exer- 
cises in Drawing, give them a 
superiority over all works of the 
kind that have fallen under my 
observation." 

" From a critical examination 
of them, I believe that they are 
well adapted to the end they pro- 
pose to subserve I will do 

whatever lies in my power to in- 
troduce them to public atten- 
tion." 

" I have carefully examined 
'Kay's Progressive Series.' I 
think they are admirably adapted 
to the capacity of children. 1 
shall introduce them into my Pri' 
m.ary school." 

" Their advantage over other 
works of the kind consists in their 
conducting the child step by step, 
by easy and pleasant gradations, 
through the incipient stages of its 
study." 

" Having carefully examined 
'Kay's Series,' I recommend it 
as, in my judgment, the best 
work for the purpose intended 
with which I am acquainted." 

" I can recommend them to 
those who instruct young children 
as valuable' auxiliaries." 

" Having examined them, I 
have been much pleased with the 
new and valuable features intro- 
duced into them, and recommend 
them to the public as better 
adapted to the purpose of Elemen- 
tary instruction, than any series 
which I have seen." 

(240) 



:^ 



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